Obesity and Drugs

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Vol. 2 No. 3 (2025)

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Submitted
March 10, 2025
Published
July 2, 2025

Copyright (c) 2025 The American Journal of Patient Health Info

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Obesity | Causes, Treatments and Anti-Obesity Medications

https://doi.org/10.69512/ajphi.v2i3.96
Rochana Acharya, MD
Cleveland Clinic Foundation Program, OH, USA
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7293-8207
Bharosha Bhattarai, MD
Penn State Hershey Medical Center, PA, USA
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2025-043X
Preeti Kharel
Nepal Medical College, Kathmandu, Nepal
https://orcid.org/0009-0002-7744-3160

Corresponding Author(s) : Rochana Acharya, MD

rochanaacharya2054@gmail.com

The American Journal of Patient Health Info, Vol. 2 No. 3 (2025)

Abstract


  1. People who are overweight have a higher chance of getting serious diseases like heart problems, diabetes, and cancer. These sicknesses cause millions of deaths every year.

  2. Weight loss takes time and starts with eating healthy foods and moving your body more.

  3. Weight-loss medicines, when used with healthy habits, can help people lose 5% to 21% of their starting weight.

  4. GLP-1 medications, including Ozempic and Mounjaro, are among the most effective drugs for managing obesity.

  5. GLP-1s are expensive, are usually not paid for by insurance, and are meant to be taken for the rest of your life.

Keywords

obesity weight loss weight loss drug anti obesity drug ozempic body mass index GLP-1 agonist
Acharya, MD, R., Bhattarai, MD, B., & Kharel, P. (2025). Obesity | Causes, Treatments and Anti-Obesity Medications. The American Journal of Patient Health Info, 2(3). https://doi.org/10.69512/ajphi.v2i3.96
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References
  1. Phelps NH, Singleton RK, Zhou B, Heap RA, Mishra A, Bennett JE, et al. Worldwide trends in underweight and obesity from 1990 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 3663 population-representative studies with 222 million children, adolescents, and adults. The Lancet [Internet]. 2024 Feb 1;403(10431). Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(23)02750-2/fulltext
  2. Panuganti KK, Nguyen M, Kshirsagar RK. Obesity. In: StatPearls [Internet]. 2023. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459357/
  3. GBD 2019 Risk Factor Collaborators. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet. 2020;396:1223–1249. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30752-2/fulltext
  4. Bray GA. Medical consequences of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(6):2583–2589. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/89/6/2583/2870290
  5. Loos RJ. The genetics of adiposity. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2018;50:86–95. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gde.2018.02.009
  6. Frayling TM, Timpson NJ, Weedon MN, Zeggini E, Freathy RM, Lindgren CM, et al. A common variant in the FTO gene is associated with body mass index and predisposes to childhood and adult obesity. Science. 2007 May 14;316(5826):889–94. Available from: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1141634
  7. Chakhtoura M, Haber R, Ghezzawi M, Rhayem C, Tcheroyan R, Mantzoros CS. Pharmacotherapy of obesity: an update on the available medications and drugs under investigation. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;58:101882. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(23)00059-7/fulltext
  8. Jiang Y, Zhu H, Gong F. Why does GLP‐1 agonist combined with GIP and/or GCG agonist have greater weight loss effect than GLP‐1 agonist alone in obese adults without type 2 diabetes? Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. 2024 Nov 26; Available from: https://dom-pubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/dom.16106
  9. Chakhtoura M, Haber R, Ghezzawi M, Rhayem C, Tcheroyan R, Mantzoros CS. Pharmacotherapy of obesity: an update on the available medications and drugs under investigation. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;58:101882. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(23)00059-7/fulltext
  10. Khera R, Murad MH, Chandar AK, Dulai PS, Wang Z, Prokop LJ, et al. Association of pharmacological treatments for obesity with weight loss and adverse events: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2016;315(22):2424–2434. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2528211
  11. Rubino DM, Greenway FL, Khalid U, O’Neil PM, Rosenstock J, Sørrig R, et al. Effect of weekly subcutaneous semaglutide vs daily liraglutide on body weight in adults with overweight or obesity without diabetes: The STEP 8 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;327(2):138–150. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2787907
  12. Frías JP, Davies MJ, Rosenstock J, Pérez Manghi FC, Fernández Landó L, Bergman BK, et al. Tirzepatide versus semaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(6):503–515. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2107519
  13. Garvey WT, Frias JP, Jastreboff AM, le Roux CW, Sattar N, Aizenberg D, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity in people with type 2 diabetes [SURMOUNT-2]: a double-blind, randomised, multicentre, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2023;402(10402):613–626. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S014067362301200X
  14. Alkhezi OS, Alahmed AA, Alfayez OM, Alzuman OA, Almutairi AR, Almohammed OA. Comparative effectiveness of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists for the management of obesity in adults without diabetes: A network meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. ObesRev. 2023;24(3):e13543. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13543
  15. Tsapas A, Karagiannis T, Kakotrichi P, Avgerinos I, Mantsiou C, Tousinas G, et al. Comparative efficacy of glucose-lowering medications on body weight and blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2021;23(9):2116–2124. Available from: https://dom-pubs.pericles-prod.literatumonline.com/doi/10.1111/dom.14451
  16. Shi Q, Wang Y, Hao Q, Vandvik PO, Guyatt G, Li J, et al. Pharmacotherapy for adults with overweight and obesity: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2024;403(10434):e21–e31. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(24)00351-9/abstract
  17. Flier JS, Maratos-Flier E. Obesity. In: Jameson JL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Loscalzo J, editors. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine. 20th ed. McGraw-Hill Education; 2018. p. 2851–2862. Available from: https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2129&sectionid=191734545
  18. Drucker DJ. Mechanisms of Action and Therapeutic Application of Glucagon-like Peptide-1. Cell Metab. 2018 Apr 3;27(4):740-756. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29617641/
  19. Nauck MA, Quast DR, Wefers J, Pfeiffer AFH. The evolving story of incretins (GIP and GLP-1) in metabolic and cardiovascular disease: A pathophysiological update. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2021 Sep;23 Suppl 3:5-29. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310013/
  20. de Mesquita YLL, Pera Calvi I, Reis Marques I, Almeida Cruz S, Padrao EMH, Carvalho PEP, et al. Efficacy and safety of the dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist tirzepatide for weight loss: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Obes (Lond). 2023;47(10):883–892. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41366-023-01337-x
  21. Kanie T, Mizuno A, Takaoka Y, Suzuki T, Yoneoka D, Nishikawa Y, et al. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists, and sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 inhibitors for people with cardiovascular disease: a network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;10(10):CD013650. Available from: https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD013650.pub2/full
  22. Müller TD, Blüher M, Tschöp MH, DiMarchi RD. Anti-obesity drug discovery: advances and challenges. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2022;21(3):201–223. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41573-021-00337-8
  23. Ruder K. As semaglutide's popularity soars, rare but serious adverse effects are emerging. JAMA. 2023;330(22):2140–2142. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/2812192
  24. Carboni A, Woessner S, Martini O, Marroquin NA, Waller J. Natural weight loss or "Ozempic face": demystifying a social media phenomenon. J Drugs Dermatol. 2024;23(1):1367–1368. Available from: https://jddonline.com/articles/natural-weight-loss-or-ozempic-face-demystifying-a-social-media-phenomenon-S1545961624P1367X/
  25. Wang W, Volkow ND, Berger NA, Davis PB, Kaelber DC, Xu R. Association of semaglutide with risk of suicidal ideation in a real-world cohort. Nat Med. 2024;30(1):168–176. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-023-02672-2
  26. Rubino D, Abrahamsson N, Davies M, Hesse D, Greenway FL, Jensen C, et al. Effect of Continued Weekly Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo on Weight Loss Maintenance in Adults With Overweight or Obesity: The STEP 4 Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA [Internet]. 2021 Apr 13;325(14):1414–25. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2777886
  27. Khera R, Murad MH, Chandar AK, Dulai PS, Wang Z, Prokop LJ, et al. Association of pharmacological treatments for obesity with weight loss and adverse events: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2016;315(22):2424–2434. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5617638/
  28. Weghuber D, Barrett T, Barrientos-Pérez M, Gies I, Hesse D, Jeppesen OK, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adolescents with obesity. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(24):2245–2257. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa220860
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Rochana Acharyaa, Bharosha Bhattraib, Preeti Kharelc

a Cleveland Clinic Foundation Program, OH, USA

b Penn State Hershey Medical Center, PA, USA

c Nepal Medical College, Kathmandu, Nepal

Edited on: 1st May, 2025

Last Updated

Background

Obesity is a global pandemic, with over 1 billion people affected by obesity (including adults and children) globally. [1] In the United States, about one out of three adults and around 17% of teens are obese. It is a long-term health condition where the body stores too much fat, which can lead to serious health issues like heart disease, diabetes, and even some cancers. [2, 3] Obesity can make daily life harder because of social pressure, sleep issues, and pain in the joints. [4]

What's Obesity?

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a number that shows if a person’s weight is healthy for their height. It’s made by comparing weight and height. Different groups have different BMI rules. For example, for Hispanic, White, and Black adults, a BMI between 25 and 29.9 means overweight, and 30 or more means obese. For Asian adults, overweight starts at 23, and obesity is 25 or more. [2]

Even though BMI is used a lot, it’s not always perfect. It doesn’t count things like muscle, age, gender, or background. This can sometimes give wrong results. For example, some people with a “normal” BMI might still have too much body fat and a higher risk of diseases like diabetes and heart problems. Others with lots of muscle might be called overweight or obese even if they have little body fat. Still, doctors use it because it’s quick and easy.

What Causes Obesity?

Our body weight is affected by our genes and lifestyle. Scientists say that our genes can explain 40% to 70% of why people have different body weights. [5, 6] Our body tries to keep our weight the same by balancing how much food we eat with how much energy we use. Different parts of the body, like our stomach and fat stores in the body, send chemical signals to the brain to say how much energy we have. When we lose weight, the body makes us feel hungrier and slows down how much energy we burn, so we don’t lose too much. When we eat too much, the body tries to make us less hungry and burn more energy. But this system doesn’t always work well. The body can't keep up if we eat a lot of high-calorie food and don’t move around much. This can lead to gaining too much weight or obesity. [7]

How Can You Treat Obesity?

Treatment for obesity usually starts with healthy eating and physical activity, which are the most important steps. Sometimes, medicine or surgery is needed if these changes aren’t enough. Since about 1 in 5 adults in the U.S. take medicines that can cause weight gain, it’s important to work with a doctor to find the cause of obesity. Treatment is personalized based on your health, preferences, and goals. Newer weight loss medications may be an option if your BMI is 30 or higher, or 27 or higher if you have health problems like diabetes, high blood pressure, or high cholesterol. [2,7] Imagine a pill that can not only shrink your waistline but also help prevent chronic diseases—this is becoming possible with new anti-obesity medicines changing the future of health.

Recent Advances In Anti-Obesity Medications: Meet The Key Players

The battle against obesity begins in the gut. Scientists have discovered that certain gut hormones, like GLP-1 and GIP play a major role in how hungry we feel, how our body handles sugar, and how much fat we store. These two gut hormones are transforming obesity treatment. GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1) helps you feel full longer, slows digestion, and reduces food intake. GIP (glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide) helps your body use insulin and burn fat. Once underestimated, GIP is now proving to be a powerful ally when combined with GLP-1. Together, they form a “twin hormone” approach that mimics your body’s natural satiety signals and metabolic regulators. [8] Drugs like semaglutide (Wegovy, Ozempic), Liraglutide (Saxenda, Victoza), and tirzepatide (Zepbound) have shown striking results, helping patients lose up to 20% of their body weight while reducing risks of heart disease, diabetes, and even certain cancers. [9-12]

Figure 1.

These hormones act like messengers between your stomach and brain, telling you when to eat and when to stop. [13] New weight-loss medicines like Zepbound use these natural signals to help you feel full sooner, eat less, and lose weight more effectively. [14] Instead of just fighting obesity with diet and exercise alone, we're now using your own biology to lead the charge. [15] These breakthroughs are shifting obesity from a lifestyle issue to a treatable, chronic condition. [16]

What Is GLP-1 & How Does It Work?

GLP-1 is a hormone made in our gut after we eat. GLP-1 tells the brain that we’re full, slows digestion so we stay full longer, and helps control blood sugar. [7,17] This hormone is primarily secreted by cells in the small intestine. Its role in glucose metabolism has been well-documented, influencing insulin secretion, glucagon suppression, gastric emptying, and appetite regulation. [18] Initially studied in the context of type 2 diabetes, GLP-1 has now emerged as the foundation of an entirely new category of weight loss medications, with blockbuster drugs promising dramatic results.

When food enters the digestive tract, GLP-1 is released biphasically: an initial spike within minutes, followed by a more prolonged increase. This hormone tells the pancreas to release insulin while simultaneously suppressing glucagon, ensuring that blood sugar remains stable. Additionally, GLP-1 slows down gastric emptying, leading to prolonged satiety and reduced food intake. [19]

These new medicines work by copying the body’s natural signals to help people feel full and eat less. But what happens if we use these signals for a long time? Will the body get used to them and stop responding? And most importantly, are these medicines safe to take for many months or even years? We know they help people lose weight now, but we still need to learn more about how they affect the body in the long run.

Is GLP-1 The Right Choice For You?

Choosing the right medicine isn’t one-size-fits-all. It should start with your preferences, life goals, and a personalized plan you create together with your healthcare provider. While your overall health matters, what matters most is finding a treatment that fits your lifestyle, values, and long-term goals. Whether it’s managing weight, controlling diabetes, or protecting your heart, the right choice is the one that works best for you.

Figure 2.

  • If you don’t have diabetes or heart problems, doctors often prefer Tirzepatide because it helps most with weight loss. [12,20]
  • Semaglutide (taken weekly) or Liraglutide (taken daily) are other choices, but Semaglutide is usually better because it works more and is easier to take. [11]
  • If you have diabetes, doctors usually choose Tirzepatide or Semaglutide. [12,13]
  • If you have heart disease, Semaglutide is the best choice, especially if protecting your heart is more important to you than losing weight. [21]

Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, constipation, or vomiting, especially in the beginning. Some people also have acid reflux, pancreas, or gallbladder issues. [17]

Figure 3.

Hence, doctors monitor for these. Rarely, people report mood changes like feeling low or having dark thoughts, but no strong proof links the medicine to these effects. [22]

These new weight loss medications can be life-changing, but they can also be expensive. Many insurance plans still don’t cover them, especially if you’re using them for weight loss without having diabetes. [23] Even when coverage is available, high copays and prior authorization hurdles can make it difficult for patients to start or continue treatment. [24] On top of that, these medications are injected under the skin, which can be a barrier for some people. As these newer drugs, like GLP-1 receptor agonists, gain popularity and reshape the weight loss industry, it’s essential to take a closer look. How exactly do they work in the body? Are they truly a long-term solution, or is the hype hiding potential risks? While early results are impressive, we still need to understand the long-term effects on metabolism, appetite, mental health, and more. [25]

What Is # Ozempic Face?

People often talk about “Ozempic face” on social media. It means how some faces look after losing weight fast while using Ozempic or Wegovy. These faces can look very thin, with hollow cheeks, smaller lips and chin, more wrinkles, sunken eyes, and loose skin. Doctors are still not sure if the medicine causes this or if it happens because of quick weight loss. [24]

What Happens If You Stop Taking The Medicine?

If you stop taking GLP-1 medications like semaglutide or tirzepatide, it’s common to regain some—or even most—of the weight you lost. That’s because the medicine helps control hunger, improve blood sugar, and change how your body handles fat. Once it’s out of your system, those helpful effects fade, and your appetite may come back stronger. In a major study (STEP 4), people who stopped taking semaglutide gained back nearly 7% of the weight they had lost in less than a year. A similar pattern was seen with tirzepatide. This doesn’t mean the medicine didn’t work—it just means obesity is a long-term condition that often needs long-term support. That’s why it’s important to combine the medicine with healthy eating, regular activity, and a plan you can stick with, even if the medication stops. [26]

Newer Weight Loss Pills vs. Older Weight Loss Pills

Older weight loss medications often didn’t work well because they targeted the body in ways that weren’t very precise. Many focused just on suppressing appetite or speeding up metabolism, which could lead to serious side effects like heart problems, high blood pressure, mood changes, or digestive issues. While some people lost a little weight, the results were usually insufficient to justify the risks. These drugs didn’t treat obesity as a long-term medical condition, and that’s why many were taken off the market or are rarely used today.

Newer weight loss medicines work more smartly. They act like natural hormones from your stomach that help control hunger, digestion, and blood sugar. These are different from older drugs that worked by changing how your brain felt hunger, and could be addictive. The new ones, like Semaglutide and Tirzepatide, help people lose more weight and have fewer side effects. Plus, you only need to take them once a week, which is easier than taking pills every day. [7]

Studies show that when people use these medicines with healthy eating and exercise, they can lose 5% to 21% of their starting weight. Doctors think the medicine is working well if you lose at least 5% of your weight in three months and keep it off. Even with these newer drugs, weight loss will slow down after a while. That doesn’t mean the medicine stopped working- it just can’t keep helping on its own. [7, 11, 27] Weight loss medicines don’t work the same for everyone. That’s why it’s important to talk to your doctor and find the right one. [28]

Figure 4.

Table 1: Weighing Your Treatment Options: A Breakdown of Historical Anti-Obesity Medications

Conclusion

GLP-1 weight loss drugs like Ozempic and Wegovy have changed how we treat obesity. These medications are highly effective at inducing weight loss, and most Americans are overweight or obese. In the last few years, we have seen a rise in online weight loss clinics and considerable investments by the pharmaceutical industry.

While they can be powerful tools for some, they aren’t a quick fix or a solution for everyone wanting to lose weight. These drugs are expensive, often not covered by insurance, and can cause side effects. They’re not for everyone. They help many people lose a lot of weight, but what does this mean for long-term health? Are we ignoring the possible drawbacks? It’s important to use them carefully, with a doctor’s guidance, and as part of a bigger plan that includes healthy habits.

Questions To Ask Your Doctor

  1. What are my realistic weight goals in three months, six months, and one year?
  2. Do we need to do any genetic tests before choosing a drug to treat my obesity?
  3. What are the implications of the anti-obesity drugs on my preexisting health conditions?
  4. What do I do if I have side effects of the medication?
  5. Are anti-obesity drugs safe during pregnancy?

Conflict of Interest

RA and BB have no conflict of interest to declare. PK contributed as a paid freelance medical script writer for ehealthyinfo from 2023 to 2024. No other conflict of interest to declare.

Peer-reviewed by

Bibhusan Basnet, MD

Department of Hospital Medicine, Frye Regional Medical Center, Hickory, NC, USA

References

  1. Phelps NH, Singleton RK, Zhou B, Heap RA, Mishra A, Bennett JE, et al. Worldwide trends in underweight and obesity from 1990 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 3663 population-representative studies with 222 million children, adolescents, and adults. The Lancet [Internet]. 2024 Feb 1;403(10431). Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(23)02750-2/fulltext
  2. Panuganti KK, Nguyen M, Kshirsagar RK. Obesity. In: StatPearls [Internet]. 2023. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459357/
  3. GBD 2019 Risk Factor Collaborators. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet. 2020;396:1223–1249. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30752-2/fulltext
  4. Bray GA. Medical consequences of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(6):2583–2589. Available from: https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/89/6/2583/2870290
  5. Loos RJ. The genetics of adiposity. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2018;50:86–95. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gde.2018.02.009
  6. Frayling TM, Timpson NJ, Weedon MN, Zeggini E, Freathy RM, Lindgren CM, et al. A common variant in the FTO gene is associated with body mass index and predisposes to childhood and adult obesity. Science. 2007 May 14;316(5826):889–94. Available from: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1141634
  7. Chakhtoura M, Haber R, Ghezzawi M, Rhayem C, Tcheroyan R, Mantzoros CS. Pharmacotherapy of obesity: an update on the available medications and drugs under investigation. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;58:101882. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(23)00059-7/fulltext
  8. Jiang Y, Zhu H, Gong F. Why does GLP‐1 agonist combined with GIP and/or GCG agonist have greater weight loss effect than GLP‐1 agonist alone in obese adults without type 2 diabetes? Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. 2024 Nov 26; Available from: https://dom-pubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/dom.16106
  9. Chakhtoura M, Haber R, Ghezzawi M, Rhayem C, Tcheroyan R, Mantzoros CS. Pharmacotherapy of obesity: an update on the available medications and drugs under investigation. EClinicalMedicine. 2023;58:101882. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(23)00059-7/fulltext
  10. Khera R, Murad MH, Chandar AK, Dulai PS, Wang Z, Prokop LJ, et al. Association of pharmacological treatments for obesity with weight loss and adverse events: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2016;315(22):2424–2434. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2528211
  11. Rubino DM, Greenway FL, Khalid U, O’Neil PM, Rosenstock J, Sørrig R, et al. Effect of weekly subcutaneous semaglutide vs daily liraglutide on body weight in adults with overweight or obesity without diabetes: The STEP 8 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2022;327(2):138–150. Available from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2787907
  12. Frías JP, Davies MJ, Rosenstock J, Pérez Manghi FC, Fernández Landó L, Bergman BK, et al. Tirzepatide versus semaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(6):503–515. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa2107519
  13. Garvey WT, Frias JP, Jastreboff AM, le Roux CW, Sattar N, Aizenberg D, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity in people with type 2 diabetes [SURMOUNT-2]: a double-blind, randomised, multicentre, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2023;402(10402):613–626. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S014067362301200X
  14. Alkhezi OS, Alahmed AA, Alfayez OM, Alzuman OA, Almutairi AR, Almohammed OA. Comparative effectiveness of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists for the management of obesity in adults without diabetes: A network meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. ObesRev. 2023;24(3):e13543. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/obr.13543
  15. Tsapas A, Karagiannis T, Kakotrichi P, Avgerinos I, Mantsiou C, Tousinas G, et al. Comparative efficacy of glucose-lowering medications on body weight and blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2021;23(9):2116–2124. Available from: https://dom-pubs.pericles-prod.literatumonline.com/doi/10.1111/dom.14451
  16. Shi Q, Wang Y, Hao Q, Vandvik PO, Guyatt G, Li J, et al. Pharmacotherapy for adults with overweight and obesity: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2024;403(10434):e21–e31. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(24)00351-9/abstract
  17. Flier JS, Maratos-Flier E. Obesity. In: Jameson JL, Fauci AS, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Loscalzo J, editors. Harrison’s principles of internal medicine. 20th ed. McGraw-Hill Education; 2018. p. 2851–2862. Available from: https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=2129&sectionid=191734545
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