June 23, 2022 by ztevetevans

Spanish Folklore: The Legendary Fish-Man of Liérganes

Fish-man statue in Liérganes, Cantabria. – Image by Bigsus, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

THE FISH-MAN OF LIÉRGANES

The town of Liérganes in the region of Cantabria, in northern Spain, hosts a statue of a strange fish-man commemorating his life. An English translation of a nearby plaque referring to him reads,

“His feat crossing the ocean
from the north to the south of Spain,
if it was not true it deserved to be.
Today his greatest feat
is to have crossed the centuries
in the memory of men.
Truth or legend,
Liérganes honors him here and sponsors
his immortality.”

The plaque is found on the promenade of the Fish-Man of Liérganes, along the shore of the Miera River.

The statue and plaque are referring to a local myth of a strange individual known as the “fish-man of Liérganes, ” or “El hombre pez,” in Spanish and, “L’hombri pez,” in Cantabrian dialect. According to this myth the fish-man was an amphibious humanoid being, alleged to have been a human male who had become lost at sea. A theory developed that somehow, he had evolved into a semi-human aquarian entity at home in the sea, or on land. After being captured by fishermen he was returned to his family in Liérganes.

BENITO JERÓNIMO FEIJOO

The Spanish monk, scholar and writer, Benito Jerónimo Feijoo, during the Age of Enlightenment in Spain, was well known for promoting scientific and pragmatic thinking. Yet, he claimed the fish-man of Liérganes to be fact.

There is more than one version of the myth with differences on how the boy disappeared. In one version he goes swimming in the Miera River on the eve of Saint John’s Day, 1674 with friends. After undressing and entering the water he continued swimming after they had finished and dressed. Initially, his friends knowing he was a strong swimmer, were not concerned but he never returned.

Everyone assumed he had drowned but according to the legend he continued swimming until he reached the sea where he evolved into a fish-man. It was in this apparent amphibious condition he was later captured by curious fishermen in the bay of Cadiz.

FEIJOO’S ACCOUNT

However, Feijoo maintained that in Liérganes, in Cantabria, in about the year 1650, there lived a couple named Francisco de la Vega and María del Casar, who had four sons. When Francisco, the father died the family had no means of financial support, so she decided to send one of her sons, Francisco de la Vega Casar, named after his father and mother, to Bilbao to work as an apprentice carpenter.

He was known to have lived and worked there until the eve of Saint John’s Day when he went swimming in the estuary of Bilbao with his friends. He was believed to have been a good swimmer, but he got caught in strong currents and swept out to sea. He was last seen alive still swimming into the sea where he was believed to have been lost and drowned.

In 1679, five years after Francisco was last seen a fishing boat working in the bay of Cadiz discovered they had a made a very unusual catch. A very strange creature had become entangled and attempted to fight itself free. The fishermen tried to capture the creature, but it managed escape into the sea. Several sightings of the creature were reported by other fishermen in the area as it became entangled in their nets. Finally, someone had the idea of enticing it with bread and it was finally brought on deck.

To their surprise, they found the creature had a human body such as belonged to an adolescent human male. His skin was pale, and he had sparse red hair and his nails were short and corroded.Curiously, it also had noticeable attributes of a fish having a strip of scales from its throat to its midriff and another strip of scales running along its spine. Around its neck it had that appeared to be gills. The combination of human and fish features and having pulled it from the sea baffled them.

THE CONVENT OF SAINT FRANCIS

The fishermen had never seen anything like it before, having no idea whether what they had caught was human or fish. Thinking it may be an unholy monstrosity, they took it onshore to the nearby convent of Saint Francis. Here the strange individual was exorcised and questioned but yielded no identifying or helpful information. The only attempt at speech he made was one word which sounded like “Liérganes.” Unfortunately, no one knew what the word, if it was a word, meant.

News of this strange unknown individual spread around Cadiz Bay, and although people wondered, no one could say what the word, “Liérganes” meant.Eventually news of the individual and its strange speech came to a sailor from the north of Spain who docked at Cadiz. He pointed out there was a village called Liérganes close to his hometown.Furthermore, the secretary of the Holy Office, Domingo de la Cantolla, verified the existence of the village of Liérganes which was situated near to Santander where he had come from.

In a further development, the bishop of Cadiz forwarded a description of the individual detailing physique and appearance in the hope someone would recognise or at least know something of him. An answer came back stating that no such creature, or individual, was known to exist, or ever have existed, around Liérganes.Moreover, the only extraordinary, though tragic event in the village was five years earlier with the presumed drowning of Francisco de la Vega Casar. His body had never been found but it was remembered he had red hair.

RETURN TO FAMILY LIFE IN LIÉRGANES

It was not much to go on, but it struck a chord with one of the priests of the convent who speculated that the fish-man was Francisco de la Vega Casar.Therefore, he requested permission to visit Liérganes accompanied by the fish-man. Speculatively, he visited María del Casar, the mother of Francisco, who instantly recognised the unknown individual as her son.

With Maria, claiming Francisco as her son, the priest left him with his family. Although he lived peacefully and quietly with in the family home, he had peculiar habits.He never wore anything on his feet, preferring to walk around barefoot, and unless he was specifically given clothes to wear tended to prefer nudity. He never spoke enough words to form a sentence so never really conversed with anyone. Sometimes he would mumble single words such as “bread,” “wine,” or “tobacco,” but never seemed to relate them to eating, drinking, or smoking.

Although he would eat with enthusiasm when the mood took him, he often went a week before eating again.He was always amiable and affable, and in his own unassuming way, polite and courteous. When asked to do a task he would oblige, completing it quickly and efficiently but without showing any enthusiasm.

He spent nine years living with his mother and family in this way but one day he went into the sea for a swim and never returned. What became of him is a mystery, but very much speculated about. Whether he drowned, or simply resumed his former life living in the sea is unknown, but no sign of him was seen of him ever since.

CONTROVERSY

Of course, with such an extraordinary case as this there are no shortage of sceptics. Feijoo, although having a reputation based on his pragmatism and scientific approach seems to have been convinced of the authenticity of the case even if others were not. In his version of the case, he is meticulously detailed giving names and dates and has investigated and verified accounts given by reputable witnesses.

He confesses when he first heard of the story, he did not believe it, but claimed his research led him to conclude the case was genuine.The fact that Feijoo was a strong critic of superstition, hoaxes and charlatans lent to him considerable authority. People took the opinion that if such a renowned sceptic as he believed in the case it must be true. It does seem strange that he would have backed this story, but hedid, and later even put forward scientific arguments aimed at backing the existence of fish-men in the sea.

DR. GREGORIO MARAÑÓN

Nevertheless, there were others who were unconvinced he had interpreted the evidence correctly and one of them was 20^th century Spanish scholar and physician named Dr. Gregorio Marañón.He argued that the existence of the fish-man was mistaken but admitted that the fact that there were so many credible witnesses and testimonies could not be easily ignored. He proposed there were certain elements of the story that were possible and offered an alternative explanation.

He proposed that the individual presented symptoms of being inflicted with an ailment called cretinism, now usually referred to as “Congenital Iodine Deficiency Syndrome.” This affliction is usually apparent at birth and one cause is inadequate dietary iodine during pregnancy (1).

He pointed out the individual displayed symptoms such as being virtually speechless, only being able to produce a few words. He had thinning red hair and white scaly skin, chewed his nails, and wander around which he asserted are symptoms of the disease. Furthermore, this affliction was often found in mountainous regions such as Cantabria, claiming it was commonly found around the Santander region at that time. Alternatively, he pointed out ichthyosis could have caused the skin problems – a very widespread genetic disease, causing the skin to become exceptionally dry, rough, and flaking, not unlike fish scales.

He suggested the boy had wandered off getting lost and followed the coast from the estuary of Bilbao where he was last seen round to the Bay of Cadiz where he was noticed by fishermen and captured.The scaly white skin gave him an outlandish, and fish-like appearance, to people who knew nothing of the disease. With his discovery by the sea and his scaly and unattractive skin condition, which may have been exaggerated as word spread, people jumped to false conclusions, from these coincidences, erroneously thinking he was part human and part fish.

MARAÑÓN’S THEORY

However, Marañón produced a different explanation as to how he had been found in the Bay of Cadiz. He believed it would not have been possible for him to swim there from the estuary of Bilbao, proposing he had wandered on foot following the coastline. Along the way he searched for food which he may have found readily along the seashore in form of shellfish and marine algae. Importantly, both foods happen to be rich in iodine, which is known to alleviate Congenital iodine deficiency syndrome, especially when given to babies diagnosed with the condition. Sea air is also naturally iodised and may have been a more comfortable environment.

It was purely coincidental that when he was last seen in Estuary of Bilbao, he was swimming out to sea, yet when he was found in the Bay of Cadiz he was also in the sea.

He speculated that when his father died, his mother and family struggled to make ends meet, which was why he was sent to Bilbao to learn carpentry. It may have been a relief to his employer and co-workers to be rid of such an unproductive burden as it may have been to his family.

Marañón further speculated both employers and family were not too sorry to be relieved of him, which was why little fuss was made of his alleged drowning. However, rather than perish in the sea he had wandered off alone, following the shore where possible, with no idea where he was going, he ended up in the Bay of Cadiz.

His diet of algae and seafood sustained and even helped him, but because of his age the iodine intake was of limited value.Nevertheless, the sea air and the warmer environment may have been more to his liking. It may have been the worst thing that could happen to him was to return to a mountain environment of Liérganes. His return to his mother and family may have been an unwelcome emotional and economic burden, an extra mouth to feed, or they may have been simply ashamed of him. Marañón suggests his later disappearance into the sea again was not an accident, and not of his own making, yet provides no firm proof of anything sinister.

The story of Francisco de la Vega Casar is certainly mysterious and unquestionably tragic we can only hope what ever happened to him in the end brought peace.

REFERENCES, ATTRIBUTIONS AND FURTHER READING

History of the Fish Man – Liérganes
Fish-man – Wikipedia
The legend of the fish man of Liérganes – culturizando.com …
Congenital Hypothyroidism: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments (healthline.com) (1)
File:El hombre pez de Liérganes.jpg – Fish-man statue in Liérganes, Cantabria. – Image by Bigsus, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

November 3, 2021 by ztevetevans

Bernardo Carpio: Legendary Strongman of the Philippines

EARTHQUAKES

In the Philippines, several etiological myths and legends attempt to explain the cause and origin of earthquakes. One of these tells of a culture hero named Bernardo Carpio, a legendary strongman whose struggles to break free from an underground trap causes earthquakes. In some stories, he must continuously hold back two massive stone slabs toppling in upon him to prevent himself from being crushed to death. There are many different versions of tales about Bernardo, and presented here are some of the legends and folklore of how he became associated with causing earthquakes.

GIANT, OR HUMAN?

Legends of Bernardo mostly center around a mountainous region of the Philippines known as Rodriguez today. In earlier times, the region was known as Montalban and is still sometimes referred to by that name today. The area has a geological fault system and known for earthquakes.

He is often associated with the Montalban Gorge, formed by the Marikina River, a part of the Pamitinan Protected Landscape, and the Pamitinan Cave, which was once known as The Cave of Bernardo Carpio. According to this local legend, the old gods punished Bernardo for insolence, chaining him to the Montalban Gorge, where he must stand forever, preventing two mountains from colliding together by the strength in his arms and body. In some stories, he is a giant of enormous stature and strength. In others, he is human with extraordinary muscular power and master swordsman, and some say whatever his fingers grasped died. However, all tales concerning him commonly present him as a man of exceptional strength and courage sharing many attributes with other cultural heroes and legendary strongmen in other parts of the world.

EARLY YEARS

In one version of the legend, Bernardo was the son of Don Sancho Díaz of Cerdenia and his lover Jimena, the sister of King Alfonso of Spain. King Alfonso was very protective of his sister and kept her in seclusion. One of the king’s generals, Don Rubio, had designs on her she rejected his advances in favor of Don Sancho, who was the one she truly loved. Despite her brother forbidding her any liaison with men, a baby boy was born to Jimena and Don Sancho. The child grew fast, quickly gaining extraordinary strength; anything he grasped broke in his hands. The priest who baptized him suggested they name him after Bernardo del Carpio, the legendary Spanish hero, and the baby was Christened Bernardo Carpio.

Rejected by Jimena, the jealous Don Rubio let it be known to King Alfonso about his sister’s love affair and the baby. As a result, the king imprisoned Don Sancho, intending to punish him further by blinding him, and doubled the guard on his sister. At the King’s command, Don Rubio adopted Bernardo as his foster son. Bernardo soon grew big and incredibly strong and became a master swordsman. He fought for the King in many battles, becoming his greatest knight. However, when Don Rubio revealed his parentage to him and how the king had mistreated his parents, Bernardo became bitter and resentful.

He had fought against many of the king’s pagan enemies thinking that his sovereign, being a Christian, was morally superior to them. After this news, his entire perception of the King changed. For Bernardo, the revelation had turned his whole life upside down and bitterly challenged Don Rubio to a duel and killed him.

He found the King’s treatment of his parents shocking. He now him as was no better and maybe worse than the same pagans he had fought against for him. He could not understand how he could, on the one hand, claim belief in a God of love while treating two human beings who had found true love together so cruelly. After ensuring his parents’ release, he decided he would no longer fight for God and King but fight for God and redeem the human race from wickedness and battle against sin.

REDEMPTION OF HUMANITY

Another legend tells how the Spanish engaged a shaman, known as engkantado in the Philippines, to use magic to trap him. The engkantado lured him to a cave under the mountains of Montalban, using a powerful magical talisman known as an agimat to trap him between two massive boulders, which continuously fell towards each other. To save himself, Bernardo had to use his herculean strength to hold the boulders apart to prevent them from toppling upon him. However, in doing so, he could not let go of one without being crushed by the other. The talisman of the engkantado was of equal power to his physical strength, so he could not escape.

Some of Bernardo’s friends searched for him and found the cave hoping to rescue him. Unfortunately, a series of rockfalls blocked their way, killing several of them and forcing them to abandon him, and he remains to this day. Local people believe that when an earthquake occurs, it is Bernardo adjusting his shoulders or shrugging them to make them more comfortable. However, a powerful earthquake is seen as a sign he is fighting to free himself.

BERNARDO CARPIO AND THE MAGICAL ONE

The following legend tells of a marred couple living in abject poverty in the mountains of San Mateo, Rizal. Every day was a struggle for survival. Yet, despite the hardness of life, they were overwhelmed with joy and happiness when the woman gave birth to a strong, healthy baby boy. They named their son Bernardo Carpio, and he was their pride and joy. Like all children, Bernardo loved to play, but there was something extraordinary about him. It soon became apparent that he was an exceptional child. His fingers were so strong he could pull the nails from the wooden flooring as he crawled. When he first began to walk, any rail, bar, or banister he gripped for support crumbled by the strength in his tiny hands. New toys never lasted long because he had not yet learned how to control the power in his hands, which broke items to pieces as soon as he grasped them.

He grew up to be a physically powerful and handsome young man, his strength increasing as he grew along with his fame. He was courageous and could defeat anyone in a fight and was courteous, polite and humble. Nevertheless, he was different from other young men of his age. He avoided parties, festivities, and social gatherings and showed no interest in even the most beautiful girls, who were all very interested in him. Instead, he preferred to roam deep into the forest, losing himself in the solitude of the trees. He liked to be in the remotest, wildest, and thickest part of the forest, where he felt at home with the animals as his friends.

In the densest part of the forest, there lived a magical being. This being was huge and very strong and had an evil nature with a tendency towards envy, causing harm and mischief top others. This magical one had seen Bernardo and visited him on many occasions, initially admiring the handsome, strong Bernardo. Eventually, getting word of his fame, the magical one became jealous and began to hate him.

The magical one believed no one in the world, including Bernardo, could match his own power and strength and wanted to kill him. Therefore, he challenged him to a fight, thinking he would back down, but Bernardo had never hidden from a fight in his life and accepted. So the two fought a duel which Bernardo won but refused to kill his opponent. The two fought several more fights that Bernardo won but refused to kill the magical one each time. Eventually, after one particularly long battle, Bernardo defeated the magical one and again refused to kill him. Then, still feeling full of hatred and jealousy for Bernardo, the magical one slunk off to a quiet part of the forest to rest and make a plan to get his revenge.

After a while, the magical one went to Bernardo pretending friendship and invited him visit his home in a remote part of the forest. He took him deep into the trees to a hidden grove where two massive slabs of stone stood upright. The magical one told Bernardo that this was his home and inviting him in stood aside politely so his guest could enter first.

As soon as Bernardo reached the center point between the two slabs, the magical one vanished, and the two slabs of stone simultaneously fell into the center, threatening to crush him. Bernardo managed to get a hand on each of the slabs and, by his sheer strength, stopped them from crashing down on him. Although he succeeded, he found he was trapped and unable to let go of the slabs without being crushed to death by one or the other.

THE KING-UNDER-THE-MOUNTAIN MOTIF

The legend of Bernardo Carpio contains the King-under-the-Mountain folklore motif where a heroic king lies asleep for many years, either in a cave under a mountain or a hill. Then, at a predetermined time, or when his people are in dire peril, he will awake to save them from their enemy. This motif appears worldwide, and other examples include King Arthur, Frederick Barbarossa, or Charlemagne and also known as the king asleep in mountain motif appearing in Stith Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature, and categorized as D 1960.2. The Tagalog people of the Philippines did not have kings until the Spanish imposed their own upon them, being ruled by feudal lords. In this context, it may be the heroic savior who sleeps under the mountain and will one day awake and return to save his people from an enemy or lead them to freedom. According to one legend, chains bind him to massive boulders he struggles to keep apart. Local people say that Bernardo is adjusting his shoulders or trying to break free every time there is an earthquake. Now and then, he manages to break a chain in his struggle. When the last one shatters, he will return and lead his people to freedom.

SAVIOR OF HIS PEOPLE

Here we see the idea of him as a freedom fighter or savior of his people, possibly alluding to the occupation of the Philippines by foreigners such as the Spanish, United States of America, and the Japanese. The legend later evolved that Bernardo would save his people from poverty and oppression rather than just a foreign occupier, thus providing a sense of hope and encouragement through troubled times.

© 03/11/2021 zteve t evans

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REFERENCES, ATTRIBUTIONS AND FURTHER READING

Marikina River
Pamitinan Protected Landscape
Philippine mythology
Engkantado
Bernardo Carpio – Wikipedia
Bernardo Carpio – WOW Paradise Philippines
Stith Thompson’s motif index system
Image – Bernardo Carpio – © 03/11/2021 zteve t evans

May 12, 2021 by ztevetevans

Five Mythical Birds from Around the World

Alicanto Image by JohnnyMellado – CC BY-SA 4.0

Birds have always played and important part in human culture appearing in the legends, myths and fables of people all around the world. Presented here are five legendary and mythical birds from different parts of the world, each with their own folklore and fables attached.

The Legendary Alicanto Bird

In Chilean folklore and mythology the Alicanto is a strange, mythical, bird that inhabits a strange but very real place known as the Atacama Desert ( Desierto de Atacama) and other parts of Chile, South America. The desert is rich in minerals and ores and according to legend is home to a mythical bird called the Alicanto that is said to eat different ores of metal. Its wings are said to shine at night with beautiful metallic colors and its eyes radiate colorful lights. These wonderful illuminations are said to be caused by the different metals it has eaten. For example, if it eats gold it emits a golden light or if it eats silver its light is silvery and if it eats copper it may be reddish though its wings are often described as being a coppery green. Sometimes it may eat more than one kind of metal resulting in different colors being emitted. Because of the light it emits it does not have a shadow.

Because of the heavy nature of its diet the bird spends most of its time on the ground being too heavy to fly and considered flightless. When it has not eaten for a long time it becomes lighter and can run much faster. It lays two eggs whose shells are made from the metal it eats. According to folklore, miners and prospectors would secretly follow an Alicanto hoping it would lead them to a rich deposit of metal ore or a secret horde of treasure known as an entierros. These legendary hoards were said to have been hidden by indigenous people hiding their treasure from the Spanish. It was also said pirates and privateers such as Sir Francis Drake hid their treasure in the desert.

Hopeful miners or prospectors would follow the light of bird’s wings in the darkness. If the Alicanto became aware of them it turned off the light losing its follower in the thick darkness. If the follower was of bad character and not true of heart the bird would lead them over a cliff to death. One legend tells how a Chilean Silver Rush was sparked on 16 May, 1832 when a miner named Juan Godoy followed an Alicanto to rich outcrop of the precious ore. This event led to a rush to mine silver with many miners striking rich.

The Basan in Japanese Mythology and Folklore

Takehara Shunsen (竹原春泉), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In Japanese folklore and mythology the Basan is a chicken-like bird sometimes called Basabasa, or Inuhōō and also known as the “Fire Rooster”. It was said to have its home on the Japanese island of Shikoku in the mountains of Iyo Province which is now known as Ehime Prefecture. According to old depictions it looks like a large chicken with a large, intensely red comb. It is said to breathe ghost-fire from its beak which is not hot but a cold fire that glows.

They made their homes in bamboo covered mountain recesses but were known to occasionally materialize late at night in human settlements. The wings of the Basan are said to make a strange and unearthly rustling sound when flapped. If a human inside a house hears this noise and looks outside to investigate they will just get a glimpse of the bird as it disappears before their eyes.

The Firebird in Slavic and Russian Folktales

In Russian and Slavic folklore the Firebird is a beautiful, magical bird that is much desired but has a reputation of being both an omen of doom and a blessing for those who manage to find one of its feathers, or capture it. The Firebird is described in various ways but essentially as a bird with brilliant, glowing orange, red and yellow plumage giving it the appearance of fire, hence its name. The feather continues to glow even when one is lost making it a valuable prize for the finder emitting enough light to fill a large room. They are usually depicted in the form of a fiery bird of paradise of varying in size with the story and artist. It is an extremely beautiful bird and although not usually regarded as particularly friendly is not aggressive, or vicious, but is associated with danger. This is because of its role as a bringer of danger to whoever finds it and very often a bringer of doom to those who demand its capture.

The typical structure of a firebird story begins with the finding of a feather by the hero. All though initially pleased with the find the hero eventually begins to see it as the cause of all of his troubles. This is followed by a bullying king or tsar ordering the hero to undertake one, or more, difficult and dangerous quests in search of something rare and valuable. The hero often has the assistance of a magical animal helper such as a horse or wolf who guides him throughout. The final quest is usually for the Firebird which must be brought back alive to the tsar or king. On the quest the hero has a number of adventures and wins the love of a beautiful princess. On return with the Firebird the tsar or king dies and the hero becomes ruler and marries the beautiful princess obtaining his heart’s desire. In many ways it is a rite of passage for the hero who grows in wisdom and maturity throughout until he becomes strong and able enough to become the ruler.

The Boobrie in Scottish Folklore

In the legends and folklore of the west coast of Scotland the Boobrie is a shapeshifting entity that usually appears in avian form. It is also known to take on other forms such as that of a water horse or bull. The Boobrie was said to make a deep bull-like bellowing call described as being similar to that of a common bittern though these are infrequent visitors to the region. When it appears as a water horse it has the ability to gallop over the tops of lochs and rivers as if they were solid land. It was also known to manifest as a huge vampire-like insect in summer that sucks the blood of horses. However, its preferred form appears to be that of an oversized water bird such as a cormorant, great northern diver or the extinct flightless great auk. Although considered mostly aquatic it was known to take to the land sometimes concealing itself in tall patches of heather.

The Boobrie is considered to be a voracious predator. Otters are said to be its favorite food and although it eats these in great numbers it will raid ships carrying livestock having a liking for calves, lambs and sheep. Of course this made it an enemy of the local island farmers of the area. One legend from the Isle of Mull tells how a farmer and his son were ploughing a field beside Loch Freisa. They were using a team of four horses but ran into trouble when one lost a shoe and could not continue. Looking round they saw an unknown horse grazing peacefully close by. Wanting to get the ploughing finished they decided they would try the unknown horse in place of the one that lost its shoe. Hitching it up along side the other three they were heartened to see the unknown horse seemed to take to the task with ease and their ploughing progressed well.

The Anqa – Anonymous artist, 17th cent. or 18th cent. Mughal India., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Anqa of Arabian Mythology

In Arabian mythology the Anqa is large, marvelous and mysterious female bird. It is said she flies far away only returning once in many ages but can be found at the place of the setting sun. She is also known as Anka, Anqa Mughrib or Anqa al-Mughrib. Mughrib, has several meanings such as “strange, foreign,” “distant” or “west sunset” signifying the mystery and fantastical attributes of the bird.

Zakariya al-Qazwini, in his book, “The Wonders of Creation” describes the Anqa as very beautiful with four pairs of wings, a long white neck. He claimed it possessed a small resemblance to every known living creature and they were related to birds that lived alone on Mount Qaf. He also claimed they were wise gaining wisdom and experience through their lifespan of 1700 years and mates when it reaches the age of 500 and an egg is produced. When the chick hatches it will stay in the nest for 125 years before it leaves. The Anqa is so large its diet consists of large fish and elephants and nothing else.

References, Attributions and Further Reading

Alicanto – Wikipedia
Basan (legendary bird) – Wikipedia
The Feather of the Firebird – Under the influence!
Basan (legendary bird), in Japanese folklore
The Feather of the Firebird by zteve t evans
Boobrie – Wikipedia
Anqa – Wikipedia
File:Alicanto.jpg From Wikimedia Commons – Alicanto Image by JohnnyMellado – CC BY-SA 4.0
Takehara Shunsen (竹原春泉), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
The Anqa – Anonymous artist, 17th cent. or 18th cent. Mughal India., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

January 7, 2020 by ztevetevans

English Folk Heroines: Maid Marian

Olivia de Havilland in *The Adventures of Robin Hood*, 1938 Warner Bros. [Public domain]

Maid Marian

Maid Marian, famous as the legendary girlfriend of Robin Hood, took on many roles and personas over the centuries, changing greatly with the times. Although she is absent from the earliest known ballads of Robin Hood she later appear in many plays, ballads and stories. Her character and role varied greatly, sometimes appearing as a noblewoman at other times as a commoner or shepherdess. From her early beginnings which can be found in folklore she evolves through literature from a simple medieval shepherdess and May Day Queen, to the girlfriend of the famous Robin Hood.

Folklore is dynamic and changes with the ages reflecting changes in attitude and circumstances by society. This can be seen in action with Maid Marian and how she became a folk heroine. Over time she becomes a deeper, more complex character and much more than just the love interest of the famous Robin Hood and more than just an important character in someone else’s adventure. It is in comparison to her and her character and traits that much of the morality of these stories comes out, making her an important ingredient to the overall plot, exposition and denouement of the story through the ages. The overall impression is of a strong, independent lady in a relatively equal relationship with Robin. Her qualities of loyalty and compassion mixed with boldness make her a popular figure in the Robin Hood canon of literature providing a strong folkloric tradition. There is also more than a hint of her dangerous side when she is found in a role of noble woman covertly undermining the patriarchal and ruling order by passing information on to Robin. The fact that she has male suitors in high society and chooses Robin rather than them underlines her independence of mind and action.

Marion and Robin in France

In the pastourelle songs of France, Marian became Marion and she and Robin are found together but not in the way that we are familiar with. In these songs Marion is a shepherdess who rejects the romantic attention of a knight to stay faithful to Robin who is a shepherd. From this, Marion and Robin appeared in Jeu de Robin et Marion, a French play by Adam de la Halle in the later part of the 13th century.

Later they became connected to spring festivals and traditions in both France and England to celebrate the passing of winter and welcome the new growth of spring. These were often outside events enjoyed by the community with lots of feasting, singing, dancing, games and all sorts of fun activities and entertainment.

Marian as the May Queen

Maid Marian also has associations with the rustic figures of the May Queen and Lady May the personifications of May Day, springtime and summer connecting her with renewal, new growth, fertility and abundance. With the figure of Robin Hood becoming increasingly popular appearing in plays, games and ballads especially during Whitsun, Robin and Marian eventually became integrated into new roles as the King and Queen of the May Day.

The Virgin Mary

It was not Marian in the early works that was Robin’s important female interest but the Virgin Mary. However, society changed and England became more protestant. With Marian’s strong associations to nature and fertility she complemented the forest environment and was a good partner for the outlaw of Sherwoos, eventually taking on the role of his lover. However social attitudes modified her behaviour making her become much more modest, ladylike and virtuous rather than the lusty, rustic figure of fertility, vitality and renewal.

As Marian became more integrated in the Robin Hood stories her character, social status and circumstance change and evolve considerable. She is not just a damsel in distress in need of rescue by some bold heroic male, she evolves into a much more complex character. Some of the tales portray her as a robust woman of action, her fighting expertise matching, or even surpassing male counterparts and even that of Robin in some stories.

At times when she is found within the stately and highly patriarchal confines of Norman society within Nottingham Castle she is the secret rebel passing on information to Robin in Sherwood Forest. She can move between the two worlds of Norman and outlaw society while remaining true to her own values and personal beliefs and her love for Robin.

Nineteenth Century Marion

In the nineteenth century Marion loses much of her power becoming a highborn, chaste and delicate noblewoman of high birth and very much an archetype of the Victorian lady. Her love story with Robin becomes central but she is now a supporting character to her lover rather than one in her own right. Perhaps to please Victorian audiences she and Robin are married by King Richard the Lionheart in St Mary’s Church in Edwinstowe making the story of Robin Hood and Maid Marion more romantic and sanitized.

Modern Marian

From the early days to the present we can see how the changes in society and attitudes to women have evolved and expressed at different times through the ages. Her character and her role are reflections of those times and the attitudes that prevailed towards the male and female role models. We have seen her evolve from the rustic mysticism of the May Queen to the archetypical lady of high society with a secret lover, to a more competent, confident and assertive female whose history in many ways reflects the lot of women through the ages. Marian stands out as one of the strongest female characters in folklore and literature and there is ample potential for further interesting developments in the modern age. The potential for further development for her is also seen in modern times with the greater freeing of women from their traditional archetypes.

References, Attributions and Further Reading

November 29, 2019 by ztevetevans

Legendary Ship’s Cats

This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com titled Ship’s Cats in Legend and Folklore written by zteve t evans and has now been edited and updated by zteve t evans and posted here 1st April, 2024.

Cats at Sea

For centuries, ship’s cats have sailed the seven seas with humans. They were not usually taken along as pets or tourists but played a crucial role in controlling vermin. Rats were a common problem on ships, so cats, as their natural enemy, were brought on board to control their population.

Vermin Control

The presence of rats or mice onboard a ship increases the chances of damage to cargo, affecting profits for both the crew and owners, placing the health and safety of the crew at risk, and endangering the vessel. Rodents eat anything edible, such as grain or other foodstuffs, which need protection. Even vessels carrying non-edible goods are at risk from rodent infestation because sufficient crew provisions and stores must be taken to last a voyage. They also damage a ship’s workings by gnawing on inedible items like rope or woodwork. Even modern vessels are at risk if rodents nibble through electric cables and hoses, which could lead to fires or breakdowns. Furthermore, their waste products can contaminate any edible cargo, and they also carry fleas and parasites, which can spread disease quickly in a confined environment like a ship. Cats, being natural predators, made a good choice for rodent control onboard while offering companionship to the sailors.

Domestication of Cats

Cats are believed to have lived alongside humans for thousands of years before becoming domesticated about 9,000 years ago. However, cat owners will tell you that cats domesticated humans! One theory says they were attracted to the mice and rats that were drawn to the cereals early farmers were growing and harvesting. In this way, a relationship of mutual benefit between cats and humans developed.

In ancient Egypt, cats were taken onboard boats on the River Nile to hunt birds in the thickets that grew along the banks. Evidence from DNA implies that cats spread from ancient Egypt by maritime traders on ships along sea routes. Their ability to catch rodents was believed to be the significant factor in their spread. Many trading vessels carried at least one cat, transporting them from port to port and advancing their range. Viking ships also took them on their journeys as pest control, and the Norwegian Forest Cat was thought to have been used for this purpose. The 15th to 18th centuries saw the growth of shipping, taking the domestic cat worldwide.

Polydactyl Cats

Onyxrain, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Many myths and legends evolved around cats during their voyages. One type of feline highly sought after for rodent control on ships was polydactyl cats. Normal cats usually have five toes on each forepaw and four on both hind paws, making eighteen. In contrast, polydactyl cats have extra toes on either front or rear hind paws and sometimes all four. Polydactylism is an inherited abnormality more common in felines in the southwest of England, Wales, Kingston-Upon-Hull in the UK, and along the coast of New England and Canada. However, the origin of polydactyl cats is difficult to determine. The consensus is that they were spread from ships leaving Boston, Massachusetts. Having extra toes was believed to give them additional stability and agility. These supposedly enhanced attributes helped them catch rodents, making them sought after as a ship’s cats.

Cats and Superstition

Many sailors believed cats had the power to protect ships from inclement weather. It was also believed that if a cat approached a sailor on deck, that was good luck, but if they only approached halfway and then turned back, that was unlucky. If a cat was seen to lick its fur against the grain, a hailstorm was imminent, and if it licked its fur with the grain, rain could be expected. A lively, frisky cat heralded an imminent wind.

Star Status

During the Second World War, cats were quite common on-board ships. The advent of mass media and improved telecommunications propelled many ship’s cats to stardom and celebrity status. Controlling rodents on warships was an important task, and a cat’s presence helped boost the crew’s morale.

Ship’s Cat Emmy

The RMS Empress of Ireland had a ship’s cat named Emmy. She was an orange tabby who was said to have never missed a voyage except one, a very crucial one. On May 28th, 1914, Emmy went missing while the Empress was in the port of Quebec City, which was deemed unusual as she had a litter of kittens onboard. Although the crew found her, she left again. Despite being considered a bad omen to go without the ship’s cat, the Empress of Ireland departed without her. The following day, while steaming through the mouth of the St. Lawrence River in thick fog, the Empress collided with the SS Storstad. She sank with the loss of 1,000 people. It was unusual for Emmy to leave the ship, especially as she had a litter of kittens, so one cannot help but wonder if she was forewarned by instinct.

Ship’s Cat Felix

The Mayflower ll was a replica of the Mayflower, the ship that transported the Pilgrim Fathers to the New World in 1620. It set sail from England on April 20th, 1957, recreating the Pilgrim Fathers’ voyage to symbolize the solidarity between Great Britain and the US. She arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts, on June 13th, 1957, to receive a hero’s welcome. On the voyage and crew, the Mayflower II also carried a cat named Felix. According to crew journals, Felix was a very young kitten when he was brought aboard. He did not take to life on the ocean waves too quickly, possibly because he was so young. Nevertheless, he soon grew strong and healthy once he had become accustomed to life at sea. He was taken aback when flying fish landed on deck, preferring his canned fish.

The crew expected him to be shocked upon arriving in the US and discovering he wasn’t the only cat in the world – a potential hit to his ego. However, he had to get there first. During the voyage, he suffered an accident, resulting in a broken paw, which the ship’s doctor reset and healed fully. A wave almost washed him overboard, but a crew member grabbed him in the nick of time. Despite his near misses, he made it across the Atlantic.

On July 1st, 1957, the Mayflower II was towed up the East River to New York, where Felix became a celebrity appearing in magazines such as National Geographic, Yankee, and Life. Felix and the rest of the crew participated in a New York ticker tape parade. He was finally adopted by Ann Berry, the girlfriend of the cabin boy, who lived in Waltham, Massachusetts.

Able Seacat Simon

In 1949, a cat named Simon was aboard the HMS Amethyst during the Yangtze Incident, a historic event in the Chinese Civil War. Simon is the only cat ever awarded the Dicken Medal, the animal equivalent to the Victoria Cross. In March 1948, 17-year-old Ordinary Seaman George Hickinbottom from HMS Amethyst found Simon in the dockyards of Hong Kong, undernourished and in poor health and about 12 months old. Hickenbottom took pity on him and smuggled him aboard the Amethyst. Fortunately, he soon made friends with the crew and officers and was very good at catching the rodents onboard. He was something of character that would leave presents of dead rats in the beds of crew members and curl up and fall asleep in the captain’s hat.

The commander of the Amethyst was Lieutenant Commander Bernard Skinner, who soon made friends with the cat. Simon also went along when the Amethyst was sent up the Yangtze River to Nanjing to relieve the HMS Consort. En route, the Amethyst came under bombardment from shore batteries of the People’s Liberation Army, and significant numbers of the crew were killed and wounded, including Commander Skinner, who died. Simon also sustained terrible wounds and was taken to sick bay. Medics removed four pieces of shrapnel, but he was not expected to live. However, he survived to become the scourge of the rodents on board. His efforts helped to save the valuable supplies and boosted the remaining crew’s morale. Despite attempts at rescue by the Royal Navy, the ship was prevented from moving until July 30th, 1949, when she made a daring dash for freedom at night.

In gratitude for his bravery and success in keeping rodents under control in dangerous circumstances, he was given the rank of Able Seacat Simon. He also received the Blue Cross medal and the Amethyst campaign medal. On return to the UK, he succumbed to an infection and sadly passed away. He was posthumously awarded the Dicken Medal and buried with full naval honours, and his obituary appeared in The Times.

In 1975, The Royal Navy stopped allowing animals on board their ships for hygiene reasons, although many private ships and boats still carry them, possibly more as pets than for vermin control.

References, Attributions, and Further Reading

November 6, 2019 by ztevetevans

Welsh Folklore: The Mythical Beasts of Llyn Cowlyd

cat jackson / Llyn Cowlyd / CC BY-SA 2.0

Llyn Cowlyd

Llyn Cowlyd is a long and narrow lake almost two miles long and about a third of a mile wide situated in the Snowdonia National Park in North Wales. It is the deepest lake in northern Wales and has given soundings of 229 feet. Today it is used as a reservoir and its depths have been raised twice from its natural depth and its natural depth was believed to be about 184 feet. Today, it has a bleak, treeless appearance though according to the Red Book of Hergest, written around 1382 from oral tradition it was once forested. According to legend and tradition there were three mythical beasts associated with it; the water horse, the water bull and the Owl of Cowlyd. This work will briefly discuss the myths associated with each of them.

The Legendary Ceffyl Dŵr, the Water Horse

Mythical Ceffyl Dŵr, water horse – zteve t evans – AI image

According to ancient tradition Llyn Cowlyd is the home of a legendary Ceffyl Dŵr or water horse, which are featured in many legends and folktales. They are said to have been shape-shifters that could also fly and despite their solid appearance could evaporate quickly into a fine mist. Although there were many alleged sightings of water horses during the 18th century no records were made until the 19th century.

According to tradition the water horse has fiery eyes and it is dangerous for humans to look into them. It is said that when a water horse is close a dark and forbidding feeling is experienced and those who work near its known haunts will quickly make themselves scarce. Sabine Baring-Gould in 1903 gave the following warning for anyone who should encounter a water horse,

“Should he see a horse, however quiet and staid, browsing near, let him not venture to mount it, although the beast seems to invite the weary traveller through the heather to take a seat on its back. No sooner is he in his seat than all its want of spirit is at an end. It flies away with its rider towards the lake, plunges in, and will never be seen again. It is the Ceffyl y Dwfr, the Water-horse, a spirit that lives in the depths, with a special taste for human flesh, which it will munch below when it has its victim at the bottom of the blue water.” (1)

The water horse of Llyn Cowlyd was believed to be an evil entity that only appeared at night assuming the shape of a horse and trying to entice unwary people to try and ride it. Once a rider was mounted it would fly into the clouds, perhaps over the mountains or over water and then suddenly dissipate into fine mist leaving the rider to fall to their death. It was said that members of the clergy alone could safely ride the water horse as long as they did not speak a word. Although Llyn Cowlyd had its own water horse another was said to haunt Llyn Crafnant.

Sometimes in Wales, the water horse is associated with the sea and is said to be the bringer of storms. They are believed to change their appearance before and after the storm. Before the storm they would be seen stamping around in the waves their coats a dapple grey or white. After the storm they changed their coats into a chestnut or piebald coloring and were seen trotting along the shore. During long stormy periods their coats became the colour of sea foam.

The Water Bull of Llyn Cowlyd

by George W. Hobbs [Public domain]

Llyn Cowlyd is also the home of another mythical beast called a water bull, which is also found in Scotland. Water bulls are usually seen as being nocturnal and make moorland lakes their homes and also have amphibious and have shape shifting abilities. Water bulls can be dangerous and alarming and are sometimes seen with fiery horns and hoofs with flame spouting from their nostrils. According to tradition, solitary walkers near the lakeside have been known to have been dragged into the water to their deaths.

The Owl of Cowlyd

artist – Miller [Public domain]

The Mabinogion the tale of Culhwch and Olwen mentions the Owl of Cowlyd as one of the oldest animals in the world that lived in the cwm, or valley of Cowlyd. Culhwch the protagonist of the story, has to find him in order to complete a series of near impossible tasks as ordained by Ysbaddaden the giant, before he will grant permission for him to marry his beautiful daughter, Olwen. Culhwch recruits the aid of King Arthur who is his cousin. Arthur provides Culhwch with companions to help him on his quest and the adventures begin.

One of the tasks he was set by Ysbaddaden was to find Mabon, who was the son of Modron whose whereabouts were unknown. Mabon was essential to the success of the quest of Culhwch. To succeed he had to kill the legendary wild boar. the Twrch Trwyth. The only dog who could track the Twrch Trwyth was the hunting dog named Drudwyn and the only man who could handle Drudwyn was Mabon. The problem was that Mabon was being held captive in some secret place and no one knew where.

It was believed only the oldest and wisest animals in the world may possess the knowledge of the whereabouts of Mabon therefore these were sought out. The questers came to the Blackbird of Cilgwri, who led them to the Stag of Redynfre, who led them to the Owl of Cowlyd, living in the valley surrounding the lake. The owl told them,

“If I knew I would tell you. When first I came hither, the wide valley you see was a wooded glen. And a race of men came and rooted it up. And there grew there a second wood; and this wood is the third. My wings, are they not withered stumps? Yet all this time, even until to-day, I have never heard of the man for whom you inquire. Nevertheless, I will be the guide of Arthur’s embassy until you come to the place where is the oldest animal in this world, and the one that has travelled most.” (2)

The Owl of Cowlyd led them to the Eagle of Gwern Abw, who led them to the Salmon of Llyn Llyw who revealed that Modron was being held prisoner and showed them the whereabouts of his prison.

Lesson For The Future

Llyn Cowlyd is associated with some very strange mythical beasts although by its appearances today you would not think it possible but the lake and its valley have not always been as they are now. If we look closely at what the owl says we will see it has changed from a wooded vale into the bleak and treeless place we see today through human activity. Indeed, the lake itself has been altered by humans to serve the needs of humans and we see how humanity changes the landscape and environment for its own needs perhaps providing a lesson for the future, or a warning.

References, Attributions and Further Reading

(1) A Book of North Wales by S. Baring-Gould
(2) The Mabinogion by Lady Charlotte Guest, [1877], at sacred-texts.com – Kilhwch and Olwen, or The Twrch Trwyth
Llyn Cowlyd – Wikipedia
Llyn Cowlyd – Mysterious Britain & Ireland
Red Book of Hergest
Sacred Texts – The Ancients of the World – The Welsh Fairy Book by W. Jenkyn Thomas – Illustrations by Willy Pogány, New York, F. A. Stokes [1908]
The Encyclopedia of the Celts by Knud Mariboe File:Llyn Cowlyd – geograph.org.uk – 1150645.jpg from Wikimedia Commons – by cat jackson / Llyn Cowlyd / CC BY-SA 2.0
Mythical Ceffyl Dŵr, Water Horse – AI image – Conjurered from Bing Image Creator by zteve t evans using the commands, “A mythical magical water horse with emerging from a lake in the style of pre-Raphaelites,“ 4 April 2025.
File:Friendly Bull Drawing.jpg from Wikimedia Commons – published by George W. Hobbs [Public domain]
File:ScopsTuniaJerdon.jpg from Wikimedia Commons – artist – Miller [Public domain]

October 30, 2019 by ztevetevans

The Celebrated Frost Fairs of the River Thames, London.

1683-84 Frost Fair Thomas Wyke [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons (cropped)

This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com as London Folklore: The Legendary Frost Fairs of the River Thames by zteve t evans on December 27, 2018, and has been revised and edited with images added 4 March 2024 by zteve t evans.

Thames Frost Fairs

The historic Frosts Fairs held on the River Thames in London are depicted in several works of art that show how cold, icy, and severe the weather became during those events compared to the weather experienced in the capital in modern times. The idea of a Frost Fair on the icy surface of the River Thames in London may seem like a flight of fantasy today, especially when one appears or is mentioned several times in one of the UK’s favorite sci-fi television series, Dr Who. In one of the scenes set during the 1814 Thames Frost Fair, the doctor encounters an elephant walking across the frozen surface of the Thames. In another episode, the doctor takes River Song to the same event to celebrate her birthday. The Thames Frost Fairs are featured in two tracks on “Snow on Snow” by The Albion Christmas Band, a beautiful collection of Christmas and winter songs on CD. Today, the idea of such a novel event with crowds of people, stalls, entertainment and all the fun of the fair on the frozen River Thames may seem surreal. Nevertheless, it has happened several times in the past. Here, we look at some of these times and see how it affected Londoners, what they did, and how they coped in those frigid times.

The Little Ice Age

The River Thames has long been an important trade and transport route, and many large and small businesses flourish around it. The river swarmed with large and small boats crewed by watermen, who ferried people and goods up, down and across the river. Many people lived, worked, and died around the river, and a rich culture of folklore and legend evolved, some of which still exist today. With the great river’s importance to Londoners, how would they cope when it suddenly stopped flowing and froze solid, allowing no ships or boats to travel up, down or across it?

A series of sudden exceptionally cold periods of extreme wintery weather have caused this to happen several times. Although such a notion may seem nothing but legend and folklore, it is a historical fact that the River Thames has frozen several times, hard enough for usual daily commerce to be temporarily impossible. These extreme cold events happened during a period known as the Little Ice Age that lasted from 1300 to 1870. Expert opinion varies on this and the causes and is not dealt with here. It was also known to have frozen over in even earlier times. During the winter of 1536, Henry VIII was said to have enjoyed a sleigh ride to Greenwich from the center of London on the Thames ice. In 1564, Elizabeth I strolled upon the ice and practiced archery on the frozen river.

The worst of the big freezes occurred between 1550 and 1750, and during the winters of 1683 – 1684 and 1715 – 1716, the Thames was frozen for three months, but most events were usually much briefer. However, when it did freeze over, it brought the river and much of the city’s daily business to an abrupt halt. Nevertheless, Londoners, being innovative and enterprising, changed what they did to suit the weather. In its frozen state, the river became a highway that wagons and coaches could traverse while the boats were stuck in the ice. Furthermore, it became an extension of the land, offering new opportunities not just to make money but also to have fun and Londoners like to have fun.

The First Frost Fair (1607-08)

Great Frost -Printed at London: For Henry Gosson, 1608. Attributed to Thomas Dekker Dekker – Houghton Library, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 1608, the first recorded London Frost Fair occurred on the icy surface of the River Thames. During December 1607, the ice was thick enough for people to walk from Southwark to the city. By January 1608, the ice was thick and solid enough for a host of activities on its surface. A small town of stalls, booths and tents sprang up, selling many diverse kinds of food and drink. Tradesmen such as shoemakers and barbers set up stalls selling their wares and services and even lit fires on the ice to keep warm and use for cooking.

The Frozen Thames 1677 – Abraham Hondius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Among them, skittles, bowling, and many other sports and activities took place for people to enjoy and participate in. Another popular game was “folk” football, unlike modern football, where two teams compete, and rules are followed. This competition was between two mobs with few rules which often became chaotic, unrestrained, riotous events.

The Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84

The diarist, writer and Fellow of the Royal Society, John Evelyn (1620 – 1706), provides an on-the-spot, eye-witness account of the event often called the Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84. On January 6, 1684, in his diary, he wrote,

“The frost continues more and more severe; the Thames before London was still planted with booths in formal streets, all sorts of trades and shops furnished, and full of commodities, even to a printing press, where the people and ladies took a fancy to have their names printed, and the day and year set down when printed on the Thames: this hum our took so universally, that it was estimated that the printer gained £5 a day, for printing a line only, at sixpence a name, besides what he got by ballads, etc.

Coaches plied from Westminster to the Temple and from several other stairs to and from, as in the streets, sleds, sliding with skates, bull-baiting, horse and coach-races, puppet-plays and interludes, cooks, tippling, and other lewd places, so that it seemed to be a bacchanalian triumph or carnival on the water, while it was a severe judgment on the land, the trees not only splitting as if the lightning struck, but men and cattle perishing in divers places, and the very seas so locked up with ice, that no vessels could stir out or come in. (1)

1684 Frost Fair – Abraham Hondius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Evelyn tells how even printers got in on the act. One name, Croom, had the idea of cashing in on the event’s novelty by selling souvenir cards for sixpence each. They carried the customer’s name and the date and proclaimed that it was printed on the frozen Thames. These were extremely popular, and Croon was said to make five pounds daily. Even King Charles II was said to have brought one. This impromptu frost fair began the rise of Chipperfield’s Circus, which also provided entertainment.

The sheer novelty of the frozen Thames inspired many enterprising and opportunistic citizens to make the best of the severe weather while making money and having fun at the same time. Despite the cold, young and old folk flocked to the frozen river in their thousands to enjoy the various activities and events that suddenly sprang up.

From a Print of the Frost Fair, 1684, we learn that hackney carriages and horse-drawn carts used the frozen river as a road. A street of booths and stalls sprang up selling beers, brandy, and every kind of alcoholic beverage, and there was music and dancing and many other entertainments and booths that sold hot coffee and food,

Hot Codlins, Pancakes, Duck, Goose, and Sack,
Rabit, Capon, Hen, Turkey, and a wooden Jack.
In this same street before the Temple was made,
There seems to be a brisk and lively Trade:

There Roasted was a great and well-fed Oxe,
And there, with Dogs, Hunted the cunning Fox;
Dancing o’ th’ Ropes, and Puppit-plays likewise,
The like before we’re seen beneath the Skies; (2)

Events such as blood sports and folk football took place, and all sorts of merchants and traders brought their wares and services to sell on the ice. As more people flocked onto the frozen Thames, there was more money to be made, and the atmosphere became increasingly Bacchanalian with stalls selling liquor doing a roaring trade and each competing for custom from quaint, though aptly named booths, for example,

Where e’ry Booth hath such a cunning Sign,
As seldom hath been seen in former time;
The Flying Piss-pot is one of the same,
The Whip and Egg-shell, and the Broom by name: (3)

With its increasing popularity, there was more money to be made, and even more diverse trades set up shop on the ice. As well as being a place of novelty and entertainment, it became a market where all sorts of goods and merchandise were sold, and prices became higher on the ice than they were off it. Not everyone approved of what was happening on the Thames ice. For some people, the drunkenness and debauchery among the revelers and the shady dealings of many river traders caused concern that it was bringing out the worst in people.

The Frost Fair of 1715-16

Londoners were hit by another hard winter in 1715-16 when heavy snowfalls blanketed the city, and it was so cold that the Thames froze for almost three months. Once again, London entrepreneurs took to the ice, erecting booths, tents, and pavilions selling all kinds of goods and services. People flocked onto the frozen river to have fun. On January 19, two oxen were roasted over fires upon the ice. The activities on the frozen river drew people away from the theatres, and the Prince of Wales visited the Frost Fair.

Once again, entrepreneurial printers set stalls on the ice, publishing all sorts of printed paraphernalia. The Dawks were a London family of printers and booksellers, and one of them, Ichabod Dawks, published a regular newsletter called Dawks’ Newsletter, and on January 14, the news was,

“The Thames seems now a solid rock of ice; and booths for the sale of brandy, wine, ale, and other exhilarating liquors, have been for some time fixed thereon ; but now it is in a manner like a town: thousands of people cross it, and with wonder view the mountainous heaps of water, that now lie congealed into ice. On Thursday, a great cook’s-shop was erected, and gentlemen went as frequently to dine there as at any ordinary. Over against Westminster, Whitehall, and Whitefriars, Printing-presses are kept upon the ice, where many persons have their names printed, to transmit the wonders of the season to posterity.” (4)

Horse-drawn wagons, coaches, barrows, carts, and vehicles of all sorts were taken onto the ice, transporting goods and people upon the frozen surface, and a preacher aroused and warmed his congregation with an enthusiastic sermon.

The Thames, being a tidal river, was also subject to the tides as well as the frost and cold. An abnormally high tide raised the ice by fourteen feet, flooding cellars in buildings alongside the river but not putting the revelers out of their stride. On February 15, the ice began to thaw and split, ending the party.

The Great Frost of 1739-40

The winter of 1739-40 was another severe event remembered for the intense frost and cold and produced another Thames Frost Fair. It began on Christmas Day and lasted into the New Year before finally beginning to slowly thaw on February 17 and becoming known as The Great Frost. The weather was said to be more severe than the weather around Hudson’s Bay, Canada. The less impoverished and working-class citizens struggled to find food, fuel, and water. With the weather so bad, many traders, such as the watermen who worked on the Thames, fishermen, carpenters, bricklayers, and many other trades, could not operate. A march was held to bring their plight to the attention of the rich and the rulers of the city, who granted some relief to the suffering people.

A few days after the arrival of the Great Frost, a powerful storm struck the Thames and its estuary, causing considerable damage to boats and vessels. Icebergs and floes caused havoc and eventually froze together, covering the surface of the river to create an alien scene of a snowy field with small uneven hills of snow and ice and icebergs protruding through the icy white surface.

When the weather settled, another Frost Fair sprung up on the ice of the Thames, selling all sorts of goods and services. Again, the printers were there, and there were the usual drinking and eating booths, puppet shows and a wide variety of entertainment and sports. A carnival atmosphere prevailed as the people sought to forget the problems and difficulties that the severe weather brought. The ice lasted for about nine weeks before it thawed and broke up.

The Frost Fair of 1767-68

At the end of December 1767, a severe frost began and strengthened until January 16, causing the River Thames to freeze again. Ships, boats, and river vessels became trapped in the ice, and many were severely damaged or sunk by the ice flowing with the tides. During this period, many lives were lost, and the price of meat and food increased so much that impoverished people could not afford it. The Lord Mayor of London, Thomas Harley, provided subsidies for bringing fish to the Billingsgate market, helping to alleviate the suffering. Nevertheless, the less well-off citizens suffered great hardship in London and the surrounding countryside, where roads were impassable. Coal, fuel, and food became scarce and expensive because they could not be transported, and the severe weather caused many accidents and deaths. A violent storm also caused chaos and damage in the city, amounting to £50,000, a considerable sum of money in those days.

The Frost Fair of 1788-89

A severe frost began on November 25, 1788, and lasted seven weeks. On January 5, the Thames froze over, as before, a fair and market with puppet shows, drinking and eating booths, and even exhibits of wild animals appeared on the ice.

The Gentleman’s Magazine reported that on January 10, 1889, thirteen men drove a wagon carrying a ton of coal from Loughborough, Leicestershire and delivered it to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House. The clerk of the cellars paid them four guineas, but when His Highness heard of their feat, he ordered them to be rewarded with 20 guineas and a pot of beer each. On January 13, the Prince of Wales donated £1,000 to relieve the impoverished during the severe weather.

On Saturday, January 17, the captain of a ship negotiated an agreement with a publican to secure his boat to his premises, which lay close to the Thames bank. An anchor was taken into the publican’s cellar and made fast. At the same time, a cable was attached to a structural beam of the building. In the night, the weather and currents took hold of the ship, causing the publican’s structure to be destroyed and five people killed. (5)

The magazine also reports that in February 1789, entertainment and booths appeared on the ice of the Thames with all manner of entertainment. All kinds of food and drinks were sold with fires roasting oxen, sheep, and pigs. Once again, the Thames became a place of carnival and festival, yet, despite the merriment, the poorer citizens suffered terribly with little food, water, or fuel for warmth. There was little work to be had that could be done to earn money, and the City of London raised 1,500 pounds to alleviate the suffering. (6)

The Last Frost Fair (1814)

The Fair on the Thames, February 4th 1814 – Luke Clenell – Public Domain – via Wikimedia Commons

The last frost fair on the frozen River Thames began on February 1, 1814, and lasted four days. As with previous Frost Fairs, an enterprising printer named George Davis set up a stall and typeset, printed, and published a 124-page book titled Frostiana; or a History of the River Thames in a Frozen State, which he sold as a souvenir. Again, stalls and booths sprang up, selling a vast array of goods, wares, and services. The watermen, unable to work, used the sails from their boats to make booths and tents to accommodate the selling of food such as roast meat and gingerbread.

While tea, coffee and hot chocolate were readily available, gin, beer and wine were more popular. These beverages were sold in “fuddling tents, “temporary makeshift inns. A variety of entertainments were held on the ice, including skittles, football, ox roasts and dancing. The watermen charged for entry onto the ice and to watch events such as an ox being roasted. Often, the same families whose ancestors had provided these services for previous Frost Fairs were the providers this time. The atmosphere was raucous, with a lot of drunkenness and people being fleeced of money. There were no policemen in those days, and the watermen kept order, broke up fights and controlled the ice. As previously mentioned, one of the most novel events was when someone led an elephant across the frozen river, creating an extraordinary scene.

Problems and Hardship

Frost Fairs on the Thames were not all fun and frolic; they also brought massive problems and hardship. The severe weather that produced the conditions to enable a frost fair also brought issues for Londoners. John Evelyn tells us,

“The fowls, fish, and birds, and all our exotic plants and greens, universally perishing. Many parks of deer were destroyed, and all sorts of fuel so dear, that there were great contributions to preserve the poor alive. Nor was this severe weather much less intense in most parts of Europe, even as far as Spain and the most southern tracts. London, by reason of the excessive coldness of the air hindering the ascent of the smoke, was so filled with the fuliginous steam of the sea-coal, that hardly could one see across the street, and this filling the lungs with its gross particles, exceedingly obstructed the breast, so as one could scarcely breathe. Here was no water to be had from the pipes and engines, nor could the brewers and divers other tradesmen work, and every moment was full of disastrous accidents.” (7)

When the ice started to melt and break up, it became treacherous, causing death to people and animals, damage to property, and flooding. The harsh weather also affected people in the countryside, other parts of the UK, and Europe.

Future Frost Fairs

The Old London Bridge (1176-1825) was one of the most iconic images of London and partly responsible for the Thames freezing over. Its design slowed the water and trapped ice floes, causing them to clog up the river and freeze together. The river was shallower, broader, and flowed slower than today, making it easier to freeze. In 1831, the Old London Bridge was demolished and replaced by one designed to have wider arches that allowed the river to flow unimpeded. Also, the construction of the Thames embankments made it deeper and flow faster, reducing the chances of it freezing over on its way through London, with the same intensity as in the past.

Another factor that might contribute to preventing a big freeze on the scale of the past is the heat given off by the mass of tarmac, concrete, and heated buildings, which helps keep London warmer in winter than areas outside the capital. Conversely, in the summer, it can make it uncomfortably warmer. That being said, no one knows what the future will bring with global warming, and there may be a few surprises.

London Folklore

The Thames Frost Fairs became a part of the rich bank of London folklore. Works of art and literature of the time give future generations a vivid impression of the sheer novelty and rarity of these rare unique events enjoyed, but also suffered, by Londoners. The Frost Fairs were a testament to the endurance and enterprising spirit of Londoners and an example of their ability to make the best out of what must have been tough times for many people.

As time passed, legends emerged from historical events as facts became exaggerated and embellished, enhancing their novelty for later generations whose curiosity is aroused by the differences between what they experience in the present and what happened in the past.

References, Attributions and Further Reading

August 14, 2019 by ztevetevans

The Griffin: The Legendary King of All Creatures

Knossos fresco in throne palace – CC BY-SA 3.0

This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com, 18/04/2019, under the title, Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of all Creatures, written by zteve t evans. Edited and revised by zteve t evans 13 April 2024 images may differ from original.

King of all Creatures

The griffin, a mythical creature with the body of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle, has been depicted in diverse styles and manners throughout various human cultures. Its unique and intriguing form has captivated the imagination of many and continues to be a source of inspiration for artists and storytellers alike. They were also known by several other names, including griffon, griffon, or gryphon. The creature’s eagle head represents its keen vision and intelligence, while the lion’s body signifies strength and courage. The eagle part of the creature was sometimes covered in feathers, while the lion part was fur.

In ancient times, lions were considered the “king of the beasts,” while eagles were the “king of the birds.” The griffin, a hybrid of these two, inherited both qualities, making it an extremely powerful entity and the “king of all creatures.” Although they were often depicted as having wings there are some wingless examples. For instance, a fine example was found in the palace of Knossos shown above. The palace of Knossos was the ancient ceremonial and political centre of the Bronze Age Minoan civilisation on Crete. It is described as the earliest in Europe, indicating the motif’s age and importance.

Griffins in Mythology

Tapestry – anonymous, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Griffins are depicted in the art and myths of many ancient cultures, including Iran, Anatolia, Egypt, Europe, and India. In early Greek mythos and art, they were portrayed as majestic beasts pulling the chariots of the gods Zeus and Apollo, through whom they became associated with the sun. Griffins were also portrayed as the servants of Nemesis, the Greek goddess of retribution and vengeance who punished mortals who defied the moral order or committed hubris against the gods. They symbolised the quick and inevitable justice that Nemesis would deliver, embodying her role as the keeper of the balance of fortune and the avenger of crime. Their fierce and vigilant nature made them suitable symbols for the goddess’s authority and her function within the pantheon to restore balance. They were her guardians of equilibrium and agents for executing retribution on offenders.

Alexander the Great

Alexander Flyin With Griffins – Jean Wauquelin, 1448-1449 – **Public Domain**, via Wikimedia Commons

In legends and medieval literature, griffins have an intriguing connection with Alexander the Great. In the 12th-century romance “Roman d’Alexandre,” Alexander and his followers encounter griffins after leaving the country of Tradiaque during their legendary explorations and conquests. The griffins proved to be formidable foes, and Alexander’s army suffered significant losses in battle against them. However, his archers succeeded in shooting down the griffins from the sky. Another tale tells how Alexander the Great once utilized two large griffins to pull a cage in which he sat in between the two. To encourage their efforts, he held meat on skewers above their heads to entice them to fly.

Guardians of Treasure

Griffins were often viewed as protectors of valuable artefacts and treasures. They were connected to gold and safeguarded gold mines, frequently appearing as sentinels on tombs. According to Pliny, the Elder, griffins were believed to lay their eggs in nests set in burrows lined with golden nuggets. However, other accounts suggest that these mythical creatures built their nests like eagles and laid semi-precious stone eggs, like agate.

The Arimaspi

Aristeas of Proconnesus, a semi-legendary Greek poet, writes about the Arimaspi, a tribe of one-eyed people. They lived in the northern part of Scythia, near the Riphean Mountains, between the cave of Boreas, the Greek god of the north wind, and the Hyperborean region. The Arimaspi had a reputation for trying to steal gold from the griffins, which was often portrayed in works of art. The Arimaspi rode horses in their attacks, and from this evolved the hostility of the griffin for horses and were often depicted assailing and killing them.

According to mythology griffins and horses occasionally mated, giving birth to a hybrid creature known as the hippogriff or hippogryph. This creature had the front half of an eagle and the hind half of a horse, making it a symbol of love. Horses and griffins were believed to be natural enemies; hence, the hippogriff represented the unison of two opposing forces.

Dinosaurs

In regions north of the Black Sea, Scythians tattooed their bodies with griffin images that lacked wings; instead, they had a large frill on the back of their necks. The fossils of the beaked dinosaur Protoceratops found in the region may resemble them. Adrienne Mayor, a classical folklorist, and historian of science, suggests that griffins may have been inspired by fossilised remains such as these. Although not all scholars accept this theory, Mayor proposes that travellers or traders in regions of Scythia may have seen these remains and interpreted them as belonging to griffins.

Symbolism and Allegory

Many legendary, mythical, or fabulous creatures were hybrids or composites of two or more animals. In addition to their physical features, they carried the special characteristics of the subject animals, such as boldness, speed, and grace, combining to become one powerful fantastic beast with all the strengths and qualities of its compositive creatures. Furthermore, they became symbolic representations of virtues and attributes, expressing a greater meaning to those with specific knowledge.

Before the ability to read and write became widespread, symbols were an elegant form of language that conveyed specific information, and they are still used for that purpose today. Since ancient times, people have needed to identify themselves and pass on information for many reasons, such as warfare, business, and religious and social reasons. Images and symbols were chosen to represent individuals and organisations and their personal qualities and attributes, and the griffin was a popular choice for many. As such, the griffin had the traditional qualities such as strength, courage, and ferocity of a lion, together with the eagle’s speed, vision, and intelligence.

These qualities were attractive to leaders in war, religion, and politics. In the fine arts of Europe, the griffin appeared in works such as tapestries and illustrations and began to take on Christian symbolism. Griffins were believed to remain with one partner for life and would not take a new mate even if their partner died. Hence, the Church saw them as being symbolic of marital fidelity. Furthermore, as a fusion of a bird of the air and a creature of the earth, it was seen as a symbol for Jesus, who was both human and divine, and in Christian symbolism represents divine power and guardianship of the holy and is often depicted in churches calmly and patiently on guard.

Griffins in Heraldry

Jerzy Bąk, vectorization: Bastianow (Bastian), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In medieval heraldry, the griffin symbolised watchfulness and courage and was the guardian of treasure. As the king of the beasts, the lion is seen more frequently than any other animal in heraldry, while the eagle, the king of the birds, is the bird found the most often. There is an idea that there was a rivalry between these two creatures that paralleled the friction between dominant political powers in medieval Europe. The fusion of the two combines the power of the lion and the eagle, and the resulting hybrid stands for strength, military power, courage, intelligence, and leadership. In heraldry, the male griffin is presented without wings for unknown reasons. Instead, it has sharp ray-like spikes from various parts of its body representing sunrays, and sometimes, it is given two tusks or horns.

Varieties of Griffin

Traditionally, there were two main types of griffins: the Hyperborean, or northern griffin and the Indian griffin. The Hyperborean griffin was found in the forested hills and mountains that once existed in north-eastern parts of Europe and Russia. It was said to be between two to three feet in height or the size of a mountain lion. The Indian griffin had its range in the Middle East and North-Eastern India. It had more lion attributes than those of the eagle. It was held sacred to the sun and, although it could fly, was not adept at flying despite having wings. Nevertheless, they were formidable enough to defeat dragons and elephants.

Therapeutic Powers

The claws of a griffin were believed to have therapeutic or curative properties for health, and blindness could be cured by its feathers (1). In the courts of medieval Europe, goblets made from antelope horns were passed off as being made from the claws of griffins, and ostrich eggs were passed off as griffin eggs. Both were considered highly desirable objects (2). The claw was also believed to detect poison by changing colour and offered protection against illness.

Modern Times

Today, griffins appear on many coats of arms and shields in heraldry. Their image is used by many organisations, businesses, and associations in their iconography. Its image can still be seen carved or depicted on many different types of buildings, such as banks and museums, and remains a popular motif with many educational establishments.

References, Attributions and Further Reading

(1) Friar, Stephen (1987). A New Dictionary of Heraldry. London: Alphabooks/A & C Black. p. 173. ISBN 0-906670-44-6.
(2) Bedingfeld, Henry; Gwynn-Jones, Peter (1993). Heraldry. Wigston: Magna Books. pp. 80–81. ISBN 1-85422-433-6.
Fictitious and Symbolic Creatures in Art – Sacred Texts – by John Vinycomb [1909]
Lore of the fantastic beasts of English Heraldry.
Griffin – Wikipedia
Alexander the Great in legend – Wikipedia
Knight v griffin – Medieval manuscripts blog
Images
Knossos – File:Knossos fresco in throne palace.JPG – Wikimedia Commons
Tapestry File:Minneteppich KGM.jpg – Wikimedia Commons
Alexander Flying with Griffins –File:Alexander the Great conquering the air.jpg – Wikimedia Commons
File:POL województwo zachodniopomorskie COA.svg – Wikimedia CommonsCoat of arms of the Gryf (Griffin) dynasty of Pomerania (from c. 1200) and of the modern Zachodniopomorskie VoivodshipFile:POL województwo zachodniopomorskie COA.svg – Wikimedia Commons.

Aurelius Ambrosius, Legendary King of the Britons

This article was first publishe on #FolkloreThursday titled, “British Legends: Aurelius Ambrosius, Legendary King of the Britons,” April 19, 2018 by zteve t evans and has been edited and revised 20 June 2924 by zteve t evans. Images may vary from original.

Aurelius Ambrosius

Aurelius Ambrosius was a legendary fifth-century King of the Britons, mentioned in the pseudo-histories of Geoffrey of Monmouth and other medieval writers. He was reputed to be the uncle of King Arthur, who would become the most famous King of the Britons. Most accounts say Aurelius was a modest, evenhanded, and determined man who exercised self-discipline in all his ways. He was a skilled warrior fighting equally well on horseback or foot, an inspiring leader of men, and an outstanding military tactician and general. Aurelius harboured a burning hatred for King Vortigern, who had usurped the crown of the Britons from his family. Vortigern had then been betrayed by his Saxon allies, resulting in the deaths of many of the ruling Britons in a murderous incident known as the Treachery of the Long Knives.

With the Britons defeated and under Saxon tyranny, Aurelius Ambrosius and his brother Uther returned to free their country and reclaim the crown of the Britons of the island of Britain. Presented here and drawn from several sources listed below is the story of how Aurelius defeated Vortigern, and the Saxons led by Hengist to become King of the Britons, restore law, and order and begin rebuilding a wounded and shattered nation.

The Burning of Vortigern

While the Saxon takeover of Britain was unfolding, Aurelius Ambrosius was in exile, making a name for himself in the battles of Armorica, and his fame spread across Europe. Finally, after meticulous preparation, he arrived on the shores of Britain at Totnes with his younger brother Uther, commanding an impressive invasion force of Armorican cavalry and footmen. Word of Aurelius and his brother’s arrival spread rapidly across Britain and many Britons rallied to him. The few war leaders and nobles of the Britons left alive after the Treachery of the Long Knives had been scattered and leaderless but were now united under the banner of Aurelius burning for vengeance. They came together from all parts of Britain to join him and brought together the clergy who anointed him as the King of the Britons.

The Britons wanted to attack Hengist immediately, but Aurelius overruled them, intending to wreak vengeance on Vortigern first and led the Britons to his last stronghold. He was joined by Eldol, the Duke of Gloucester, the only British noble of those present, apart from Vortigern, to survive the mass assassination.

Once his army had taken up their position, Aurelius commanded the powerful siege engines to set to work. Though these worked long and hard, they could not break through the walls. After all attempts failed, Aurelius gave the order to burn the tower. He ordered wood to be piled around it and set on fire while his archers shot burning arrows into the stronghold that found plenty of fuel. There was no escape for Vortigern in the tower of his last refuge, and along with his wives and followers, he perished in the flames.

The Return of Aurelius Ambrosius

The arrival of Aurelius Ambrosius to take the throne of the King of the Britons put fear into the hearts of Hengist and his Saxons, who were aware of his reputation. Being the rightful heir to the throne of Britain, Aurelius had right on his side, and Hengist knew this. He knew all about his prowess as a warrior and military strategist, and he feared him above all his enemies.

As Aurelius marched his army north, seeking to confront Hengist, the Saxon leader realised he had to fight. He urged his warriors not to fear Aurelius, telling them his Armorican cavalry was few while pointing out the Saxon superiority in numbers to the British. Having motivated his warriors, he set them in battle formation in a place he knew Aurelius and his army would have to pass through, hoping to catch them unprepared. Aurelius anticipated this and marched his men with more vigour to meet the Saxons and provoke open conflict. He gave each regiment their orders and would himself lead the Armorican cavalry into a frontal attack on the Saxon line.

For Eldol, the Duke of Gloucester, this was the moment he had been waiting for. Ever since the mass murder of the British nobility, he had been hoping to engage Hengist in single combat where there would only be one winner. The Britons had scores to settle. They were determined to avenge the wrongs done to their homeland by the Saxons, who were still a formidable and dangerous fighting force and drive them out of their country. The scene was set for a grim and bloody battle for supremacy, with the prize being control of the British island.

Hengist and the Saxons

At last, the Britons and Saxons faced each other, and the battle began. Both sides committed themselves with undeniable bravery and ferocity. Aurelius Ambrosius motivated the Britons and Armoricans as Hengist urged on his Saxon warriors. As the battle raged, Eldol scoured the battlefield, hoping to engage with Hengist man-to-man, but with the fighting so fast and furious, he had no opportunity.

When Hengist realised his Saxons were being routed and the Britons and their allies had the advantage, he fled, heading for a town then called Kaerconan, now known as Conisbrough, with Aurelius Ambrosius hard on his heels. However, he resisted the temptation to use the town as a sanctuary, fearing he would be besieged and trapped and have no escape. Therefore, still having a formidable force of fighting men, he decided to make a stand outside the town, hoping to either defeat the Britons and their allies in open battle or break free.

The Britons were soon upon them, and a fierce and terrible fight began. Although the Britons fought ferociously, the Saxons would not give ground, and considerable numbers were killed or wounded on both sides. The screams of the injured and dying further enraged the men of both sides, and the Saxons began to gain the day. Seeing this, Aurelius sent the Armorican cavalry against the Saxons as he had done in the previous battle. Their arrival forced the Saxons back, splitting their ranks and preventing them from uniting their forces.

Realising their advantage, the Britons exerted themselves harder and with greater fury and vitality. Aurelius was always at the forefront of the battle, driving hard against the Saxons and forcing them to retreat before him. He killed all who stood in his way, and his example gave great encouragement and energy to the Britons who had long suffered from the Saxons.

The Vengeance of Eldol

Another Briton performing heroics on the field was Eldol, the Duke of Gloucester. He was always in the thickest and most furious part of the battle, bringing death and destruction to the Saxons wherever he went, but always seeking his arch-enemy, Hengist. As the battle raged, he engaged Hengist in a deadly duel, which he eventually won, taking his opponent alive to face the justice of Aurelius Ambrosius, the King of the Britons.

With Hengist captured alive, the Britons redoubled their efforts, driving hard against the Saxons, who, although dismayed at the loss of their great war leader, still fought on. Although the battle continued to ebb and flow, the loss of Hengist and his leadership began to be sorely felt, and the Saxons began to give ground.

The Britons relentlessly continued the assault, and despite their courage, the Saxons were forced to flee the battlefield. Some took to the woods, some to the hills, others made for the cities, while others tried to get to the harbours on the coast where their ships were anchored. Octa, son of Hengist, decided to make for the cities and led a strong contingent of Saxons to York. His kinsman, Eosa, led numerous Saxon survivors to another town, where he had a large bodyguard of men stationed.

With the battle won and Hengist captured, Aurelius rested his army and held a council of his leaders to decide what to do with their captives. Eldad, the Bishop of Gloucester, and his brother called for the execution of Hengist. The council agreed, and Aurelius gave the order. Eldol conducted the execution, decapitating Hengist, at last fulfilling his quest for vengeance. With Hengist dead, Aurelius marched his army to York, intending to confront and besiege Octa. On seeing the size of the army of the Britons, Octa doubted whether the city could withstand siege or direct attack. Seeing no other choice, Octa surrendered to Aurelius and begged for clemency.

Again, Aurelius held a council to decide the fate of the Saxons. Eldad again spoke up but, this time, called upon Aurelius to show mercy, which was granted. On hearing of the King’s mercy, Eosa came to Aurelius begging for clemency. Again, it was given, and a covenant was made. The Saxons were allowed to inhabit the lands that bordered what is now Scotland on condition that they obeyed the King of the Britons, lay down their arms, and lived in peace.

The Rebuilding of Britain

With his enemies defeated, the King of the Britons summoned all his lords, nobles, and clergy to York. He ordered the country’s rebuilding in the ways of the Britons and decreed that all churches destroyed or damaged by the Saxons should be restored. Moreover, he personally commissioned the restoration of York Cathedral and the other significant church buildings in the province.

After fifteen days, the work was underway, and he travelled to London to see what damage had been done there. As he travelled, he was sorry to see the destruction the Saxons had inflicted upon the country. He brought back the old laws and began re-ordering the country’s affairs. Lands taken by the Saxons were restored to their rightful owners, and the estates that no longer had living heirs he shared among his soldiers. In this way, the King soon had the restoration of his kingdom underway, and justice, peace, the rule of law, and justice were firmly established once again over the Britons.

He travelled to Winchester from London to see how the restorations were progressing along the way and in the city. Then he went to Kaercaradoc, now known as Salisbury, to the monastery of bishop Eldad, where Hengist massacred Britain’s leading nobles during the Treachery of the Long Knives and the place where the victims had been buried. The monastery was situated on the mythical mountain of Ambrius, named after its founder, and now maintained by three hundred monks. Aurelius was deeply affected by the burial ground and the memory it held and began to think about what kind of a monument should be built to honour the victims and perpetuate the memory of the Saxon treachery.

The Giant’s Dance

All his best artisans and craftsmen in wood and stone could not give him a satisfactory design for an appropriate monument of sufficient stature to match the need. At last, the Bishop of the City of the Legions proposed that he seek out Merlin, who had previously advised Vortigern concerning his failed attempt to build a stronghold on Dinas Emrys. Merlin had made the prophecy of the two dragons, the arrival of Aurelius and Uther and foretold the deaths of Vortigern and Hengist, and the Bishop insisted if anyone knew of a fitting monument, it would surely be him.

When Merlin arrived, he told the King of a stone circle in Ireland on Mount Killaraus, known as the Giant’s Dance, built by giants who had carried the massive stones from Africa. He foretold him that if they were transported from Ireland and erected at Ambrius precisely as they had been on Killaraus, they would stand forever and be a most fitting monument to the victims of the betrayal.

At first, Aurelius was skeptical, thinking that it would be impossible to uproot such great stones and move them across the sea, pointing out that similar building materials were more readily available in Britain. However, Merlin was adamant that only these stones would do as each had unique medicinal properties. Moreover, he asserted that he was the only one with the knowledge and art to move them and emphasised there could be no substitute for them.

Aurelius and all those present grew serious and discussed Merlin’s proposal. It was decided that Uther would lead an army of fifteen thousand men to procure the stones by any means. Merlin was to accompany Uther as his adviser and to direct the moving of the stones from the mythical Mount Killaraus in Ireland back across the sea to the island of Britain to be set up again at Ambrius around the graves of the fallen.

Uther and Merlin embarked on their mission to Mount Killaraus to dismantle and bring back the Giant’s Dance from Ireland to Mount Ambrius. Gillomanius, the King of Ireland, hearing of the Britons’ arrival and their intention to take the monument, decided to defend it and fight Uther in a battle that the Britons won. Under Merlin’s supervision, the stones were dismantled and moved to the ships with incredible ease and transported across the sea to Britain. On their arrival, Merlin then supervised their removal and transport to the prepared site on Ambrius.

As soon as Aurelius heard of the return of Uther and Merlin with the Giant’s Dance, he sent messengers to all the nobles and clergy, summoning them to Ambrius to celebrate and consecrate the monument on the feast of the Pentecost. When all were assembled, King Aurelius Ambrosius placed the crown of the British Britons on the island of Britain upon his head for all to see.

With all royal ceremonies and magnificence, the celebrations of the feast of Pentecost began and continued over the next three days. He insisted his domestics and servants join them in the feast, rewarding them for their excellent service to him. After the feast, he set about administering Britain’s business, ensuring all was in order and law and justice prevailed. When all this business was concluded, he commanded Merlin to set up the Giant’s Dance around the graves of the dead. Using the same arts and means he had used to move the stones from Mount Killaraus, this was soon achieved, providing an enduring monument to the Britons who died in the Treachery of the Long Knives.

The Death of King Aurelius Ambrosius

Vortigern had a third son named Pascentius. With the victories of Aurelius over Hengist and Vortigern, Pascentius fled to Germany to try and raise new forces to avenge his father’s death. He promised vast amounts of silver and gold to anyone who would follow him in his attempt to invade and control Britain. Seeing vast riches to be gained, many accepted the challenge, and soon, he had under construction an impressive fleet of ships to carry a new army to attack Britain and avenge his father against Aurelius and Uther. Arriving in northern Britain, he immediately began destroying everything in his path.

On receiving news, Aurelius mobilised his army, and he met Pascentius in battle, defeating him and forcing him to flee for his life. Pascentius could not return to Germany after this disastrous defeat, so he set sail for Ireland, where he was received by King Gillomanius, who had no love for the Britons after the theft of the Giant’s Dance. The Irish King listened to Pascentius sympathetically, and the two joined forces against Aurelius. They mustered their forces and prepared a fleet to sail to Britain, landing at Menevia, now called Swansea.

It is a fact that disease and pestilence have no respect for kings or the mighty. It so happened that Aurelius had been taken ill and lay in his sickbed in Winchester. On hearing of the arrival of the enemy fleet, Uther, his younger brother, promptly mustered the King’s forces for the defense of the realm and marched to meet the invaders, taking with him Merlin to advise him.

Meanwhile, Pascentius and Gillomanius heard that King Aurelius Ambrosius was incapacitated in his sickbed and rejoiced, thinking this would aid their conquest. A Saxon named Eopa went to Pascentius with an evil proposal and asked him what reward he would receive for killing Aurelius Ambrosius. Pascentius told him he would reward him with one thousand pounds of silver, give him his lifelong friendship, and make him a commander in his army.

Eopa told him of his plan, explaining that he spoke and understood the language of the Britons and that he would disguise himself as a Christian monk of the Britons practising the healing arts. He would go to Winchester and seek to attend and cure Aurelius with a potion that was, in fact, a slow-acting poison that would eventually kill the King, giving Eopa time to escape. Pascentius was delighted, agreed to the plan, and struck a deal with him.

On arrival in Winchester, he immediately proclaimed himself a healer and physician, offering his services to the King, who gratefully received him in the hope of being cured. Eopa promised Aurelius that his potions would quickly restore his health, but he must strictly follow all instructions that he would give. Aurelius, in his innocence and desperation, readily assented and took a mixture Eopa had prepared that had been secretly laced with poison.

Obediently, Aurelius drank it, and then Eopa told him to cover himself and sleep. In this way, the poison coursed slowly but surely through the King’s veins, killing him in his sleep and giving Eopa plenty of time to escape before the death of the King was realised. When servants went to see the King, they found him dead and, on searching for his physician, found he had disappeared and could not be found.

Merlin’s Prophecy

Meanwhile, as Uther marched the army of the Britons to confront the invaders, a bright star appeared in the sky, shining day and night. From one of its rays burst a beam of light that took the shape of a fiery dragon, and two shafts of light burst forth from its mouth. Uther called on Merlin to explain this celestial phenomenon. Sadly, Merlin told him it signified the death of King Aurelius Ambrosius and foretold that he would defeat the enemy and succeed him as King of the Britons.

Merlin was to be proved right, and soon after the victory, a messenger arrived from Winchester telling of the King’s death and burial inside the Giant’s Dance, which seemed a fitting place for him to rest. His funeral had been conducted by the highest clergy and with all royal ceremonies.

Uther was made King of the Britons, took the name Uther Pendragon after the celestial spectacle, and would go on to fulfil Merlin’s prophecy. The rule of Aurelius Ambrosius had rid the Britons of the usurper Vortigern, who many saw as weak, corrupt, and foolish, blaming him for bringing over the Saxons who so violently betrayed him. With Vortigern dealt with, he removed the threat of the Saxons and subdued the Picts. He brought peace and stability and returned the country to the law of the Britons of the island of Britain.

Reference, Attributions and Further Reading

Copyright zteve t evans

Ambrosius Aurelianus – Wikipedia
Historia Regum Britanniae – Wikipedia
[PDF] Nennius – History Of The Britons (Historia Brittonum … – York University
[PDF] History of the Kings of Britain – York University
Treachery of the Long Knives – Wikipedia
Under the influence! – Vortigern’s Rule: The Treachery of the Long Knives
Under the influence! – The Prophecy of Merlin: The Two Dragons
On the Ruin of Britain by Gildas
Arthurian Chronicles: Roman de Brut by Wace
Last of the Romans – Wikipedia
The Generations of Ambrosius part 3: Ambrosius Aurelianus,
Images
1) File:Witan hexateuch.jpg – Wikimedia Commons – Public Domain
2) File:Kronika.jpg – Wikimedia Commons – Public Domain
3) File:Hengist King of Kent.jpg – Wikimedia Commons – Public Domain
4) Medieval battle – File:Medieval battle.jpg – Wikimedia Commons – Public Domain

August 15, 2018 by ztevetevans

The Rule of Vortigern, Legendary King of the Britons

This post was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com on 18th March, 2018, titled, British Legends: Treachery, Murder, Lust and Rowena – The Rule of Vortigern and revised and edited by zteve t evans and published here 28 June 2024, some images may differ from original..

Vortigern

Vortigern was a legendary 5th-century King of the Britons featured in the work of early British writers such as Gildas, Nennius, Bede, Geoffrey of Monmouth and others. There is a debate over whether Vortigern was a term for a High King chosen by a consensus to rule or whether it was the name of a person such as a warlord, lesser King, or political leader.

This work takes it as the name of a person of high status who, through his ruthless cunning and experience, took over the rule of the Britons during dangerous times. He is usually presented in a bad light as a man of immoral and selfish character who used duplicity and deception to rise to the top of the British establishment of his day. Vortigern is usually blamed for encouraging the arrival of the Saxon and Germanic invaders to Britain. At first, he employed them as mercenaries to support him and to fight against the Picts and Scots, but later, he found he could not control them. Some scholars say the ruling elite of the Britons may deserve at least an equal share of the blame through their weakness and disarray in facing their enemies. Moreover, as far as the realm’s defence was concerned, he did the best he could with the resources available to him, which had been seriously depleted by the actions of earlier rulers.

Yet, some early writers pose questions about his morality and behaviour. Indeed, acts of lust, intrigue, murder, duplicity, and betrayal are the hallmarks of his reign. This work presents a brief overview of Vortigern’s rule, looking at some of these alleged acts and incidents, some of which resonate through the ages and are the very stuff of legends.

Vortigern Takes the Crown

According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Vortigern set up Constans, the eldest of the sons of King Constantine II, who had been assassinated, to rule the Britons because he knew he could control him and eventually replace him. After arranging for his murder, he usurped the crown to find that one day, a cleverer and more ruthless man would appear on the scene. That man was Hengist, the leader of the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes in Britain.

After the assassination of Constans by Pict mercenaries controlled by Vortigern, no one else was available of suitable status, experience, or age to take his place. The rightful heirs to the throne of the Briton were Aurelius Ambrosius and his younger brother Uther, who were the sons of King Constantine II and the younger brothers of Constans. Unfortunately, they were just children and deemed too young to take the throne. Vortigern was the most experienced political figure of the Britons at the time and very ambitious. Insidiously, he had wormed his way into becoming the chief advisor of Constans while all the time working secretly to promote personal ambitions and quietly gaining power, authority and the King’s trust.

With the murder of Constans that he carefully and covertly set up, he stepped forward and seized the crown for himself. Not all the British nobles were friends of Vortigern, and some of these, fearing for the safety of the two young heirs, sent them into exile to Armorica for their safekeeping. There, they grew up safely and were taught the arts of royalty and leadership while preparing to return one day and reclaim the crown of the Britons.

Having seized the throne, Vortigern would find ruling the kingdom far from easy. In the north, Picts and Scots made frequent raids into his realm, and he also feared another impending and growing threat.

As the years passed, he was aware of the exiled royal brothers’ maturing and coming of age. He received reports of the building of a vast fleet and the mustering of a great army, and his spies confirmed his fears that they were intent on taking back their rightful inheritance. Taking stock of the situation, he found he was desperately short of men at arms to defend the kingdom.

2) Hengist by John Speed, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Hengist and Horsa

While Aurelius and Uther had been growing up in Armorica, the kingdom of the Britons had faced many threats from the neighbouring Picts and Scots, who frequently raided the borders and made encroachments further into his kingdom. To deal with these invasions, he employed Saxon and other Germanic mercenaries to fight for him, and to begin with, this worked well. The Saxons, led by two brothers named Hengist and Horsa, were fierce warriors who defeated the Picts and Scots whenever they encountered them.

Hengist asked Vortigern for permission to bring more of his countrymen from Germany to help fight Britain’s enemies. Vortigern was pleased with the success of the Saxons and readily agreed. Therefore, Hengist brought in more warriors from Germany. Next, Hengist asked for a small portion of land to build a stronghold for him and his people. He only asked for a site that a leather thong made from a bull’s hide could encircle. Again, Vortigern granted his request. Taking a bull’s hide, he made a thin thong of sufficient length from the whole to completely encircle a site of his choosing. On this site, he built his stronghold known as Kaercorrei to the Britons and Thancastre, or Thong Castle to the Saxons. Hengist was quietly pleased with what had been granted and asked Vortigern for permission to bring in even more Saxon warriors, which Vortigern granted.

The Arrival of Rowena

hamilton_vortigern_26_rowena — 3) Rowena and Vortigern By William Hamilton [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

More ships from Germany arrived, and with them came someone whom Hengist had said nothing to Vortigern about. As well as men at arms, they brought the Saxon princess named Rowena, who was the daughter of Hengist. She was one of the most beautiful and desirable German princesses of the time, and her arrival would enthral and captivate Vortigern. She would become an important, though covert player, in Hengist’s creeping influence over the King of the Britons.

With the arrival of Rowena and the new contingent of German fighters, Hengist invited Vortigern to a lavish banquet at his newly constructed stronghold of Thong Castle. Vortigern was pleased to accept the invitation, and after being shown around the castle and welcoming the warriors into his service, he was given a banquet in his honour. The wine flowed freely, and towards the end of the evening, Rowena appeared from her bedchamber carrying a golden cup of wine. Curtseying to Vortigern, she said, “Lauerd king wacht heil!”

Vortigern was surprised, delighted, and captivated by the grace and beauty of the girl, and he became enamoured with her. Turning to his interpreter, he asked what she had said and what his response should be. His interpreter told him she had called him “Lord King” and offered to drink to his health. He must answer by saying, “Drinc heil!” Taking the cup from her, he kissed her and drained it.

According to Geoffrey, this was how the tradition of toasting became popular in Britain. A person drinks to the health of someone saying, “Wacht heil!” who answers, “Drinc heil!”

The arrival of Rowena was a critical moment in the destiny of the Britons. Aided by vast quantities of beer and wine and the charm and beauty of this young Saxon princess, Vortigern was well and truly captivated. It was said at that moment the devil entered him, and he wanted her for his wife. For Vortigern, as a Christian, marriage to a pagan would have been a severe taboo. The wily Hengist was aware of this and consulted with his brother Horsa and others of his wise men present. Unanimously, they advised that he marry Rowena to Vortigern and demand the British province of Kent because of her royal lineage. Vortigern agreed to this without consulting his wise men or nobles. Furthermore, he gave Kent to Hengist without the knowledge or consent of Gorangan, the British noble who had ruled there. Although it may be said that Rowena was given to Vortigern, it became apparent that she possessed him.

As Hengist had calculated, his marriage to a pagan princess and the giving away of Kent fuelled discontent in the British nobles, for he already had a wife, three sons named Vortimer, Catigern, and Pascentius, and a daughter. Nevertheless, Vortigern and Rowena were married that night. Although Vortigern was pleased with his new wife, his nobles and sons were shocked and angry at his behaviour and threatened rebellion. Ominously, over the sea in Armorica, a more significant threat was steadily manifesting as Aurelius and Uther continued preparing their invasion plans.

To make matters worse, despite his love for Rowena and marriage to her, Vortigern further alienated his sons and nobles and set the church against him by fathering a child with his daughter.

Vortimer

With the ever-increasing number of Saxons arriving, the Britons became uneasy and openly resented Vortigern’s favouritism towards them. Vortimer, the son of Vortigern, rebelled against his father, took the crown and led the Britons against the Saxons. His brother Catigurn duelled with Horsa in battle, killing each other. After being deposed, Vortigern had remained with Rowena and her father among the Saxons while Vortimer had fought against them. In a series of battles, Vortimer drove Hengist and the Saxons from mainland Britain to the Isle of Thanet, where he besieged them with his ships, regularly attacking them.

Hengist could not match Vortimer and, knowing he was defeated, sent Vortigern to his son to plead for peaceful passage out of Britain with him and his Saxons. While a conference was being held on this proposal, with the Britons distracted, the Saxons escaped in their ships, sailing back to their homeland while leaving their women and children behind.

Rowena’s Poison

Even though Hengist was gone, Rowena secretly kept in touch with her father in their homeland. She allegedly poisoned Vortimer, who fell ill and died, leaving a power vacuum, and once again, Vortigern claimed the crown. With Vortimer dead, Rowena persuaded her husband to send a message to her father, inviting him back in a private capacity, which would allow him to bring a small entourage with him.

Hearing that Vortimer was dead, Hengist saw his chance, raised an army of three hundred thousand warriors, and built a fleet of ships to transport his men to the shores of Britain. When the news of such a vast army reached Vortigern, the British nobles were furious at the betrayal of goodwill and resolved to fight.

After receiving information from Rowena about the British resolve, Hengist devised a different plan. He sent messengers to Vortigern saying that he had only brought such a large army for fear of being attacked by Vortimer, claiming he had not known of his death. He suggested that when he arrived, Vortigern should pick and choose those of his army who should stay and those to be sent home. If Vortigern agreed, he should propose a time and place to meet unarmed and make a peace treaty.

The Treachery of the Long Knives

Vortigern was pleased to accept this as he was reluctant to let Hengist leave, both for the sake of Rowena and because of his usefulness in battle. He set a date for the Kalends of May, which was drawing near, and the meeting place would be the monastery of Ambrius on the mount of that name. Hengist readily agreed but had formulated a secret plan. He ordered all his Saxon soldiers accompanying him to conceal a long knife in their clothing. They were to act friendly and peacefully towards the Britons, encouraging them to drink heavily. When he deemed the time was right, he would cry out “Nemet oure Saxas”, meaning “get your knives,” and they were to seize their knives and slay the Briton nearest to them who would not have understood their language. The only Briton to be spared was Vortigern, who Hengist wanted alive.

The plan worked, and four hundred and sixty of Britain’s barons and nobles were assassinated, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, and Vortigern was taken hostage. This murderous event became known as the Night of the Long Knives or Treachery of the Long Knives. It became synonymous with Saxon treachery and looked upon by the Britons after that with great anger. Only one of the intended victims escaped that night. His name was Eldol, the Earl of Gloucester. He would help Aurelius defeat Vortigern, capture Hengist in battle, and execute him.

Hengist Takes Control

Meanwhile, Hengist now had Vortigern firmly in his power and, with him, the kingdom of the Britons. Nevertheless, he would not kill him until he had wrung from him everything he needed. He demanded Vortigern give him all his fortified cities and fortresses in return for his life. With no other choice, Vortigern agreed. He was set free to watch as Hengist and his Saxons took London and then York, Lincoln and Winchester leaving a trail of devastation in their wake. Not knowing what else to do, Vortigern took what few followers remained and went to Cambria, where he was to seek counsel from his wise men.

Dinas Emrys: Merlin and the Two Dragons

4) The Two Dragons of Vortigern’s Tower (cropped) – Public Domain

Vortigern finally realised Hengist had dangerously outmanoeuvred him and consulted with his wise men. They advised him to find a strategically defensible site to build a new fortress to keep him and his followers safe, as Hengist had been given command of all the fortified places. After searching what remained of his kingdom, he finally settled on a place now named Dinas Emrys. His builders set to work, making good progress on the first day. When evening came, they went home expecting to continue building on that progress the following day. But in the morning, when they returned, they found all the walls they had built the previous day in a heap on the ground.

Bemused, they rebuilt what had fallen and again broke off from work in the evening, thinking they had set things right. In the morning, when they arrived expecting to make further progress with their work, they discovered once more that it had become a heap of rubble on the ground. This pattern repeated daily, and the building work did not progress. The exasperated Vortigern asked his wise men for guidance. They advised that he must seek out someone not born from a man who must then be sacrificed and his blood sprinkled on the foundations. He sent out his servants to find such a person. After a long search, they returned with a boy named Merlin Emrys, who would one day become the prophet and counsellor of the Kings of Britain.

Vortigern told Merlin he would be sacrificed, but Merlin demanded Vortigern bring him his wise men for questioning first. Vortigern agreed, and after Merlin questioned Vortigern, it became clear that they had no idea why the walls kept falling. Merlin explained to Vortigern that beneath the hill was an underground pool with two stone vessels, each containing a sleeping dragon. One dragon was red, and the other was white. It was the pool of water making the foundations unstable.

Merlin instructed Vortigern to dig below the foundations, and a pool was revealed. He then instructed Vortigern to drain the pool. As he had predicted, two stone containers, each holding a sleeping dragon, were found. One held a red dragon, the other a white, much to the amazement of all. When the dragons awoke, they immediately set about fighting each other. After a long and vicious struggle, the red dragon drove away the white dragon.

The Prophecies of Merlin

Merlin tested the wise men by asking what this meant, but none had any idea. He then interpreted the scene for Vortigern, explaining that the red dragon represented the Britons and the white dragon the Saxons. After a hard struggle, the red dragon would drive out the white dragon but warned it would return centuries later to rule Britain. Then, he made a long series of prophecies that impressed and awed Vortigern, who asked him how he would die.

Merlin told him he saw two possible deaths for him. He told him that as he spoke, Aurelius Ambrosius and his brother Uther had set sail for Britain at the head of a vast fleet carrying an invasion force and were disembarking at Totnes. The remaining Britons would flock to their banner, and they would seek him out and burn him in his tower in revenge for the death of their brother Constans and because he brought the Saxons to the shores of Britain. After finishing with him, they would attack Hengist and drive the Saxons from Britain. The next day, in proof of Merlin’s words, messages arrived in the morning telling of the arrival of Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther and an invasion army that had landed at Totnes. This would be the first possibility.

Then Merlin told Vortigern the second possibility would be at the hands of the Saxons, who were now, thanks to him, at work laying waste to the country. However, Merlin emphasised that he did not know who would get to him first. He predicted that Hengist would be killed and Aurelius Ambrosius would be crowned King of the Britons. He would right the wrongs done by the Saxons and bring peace to the country.

Unfortunately, his days would be cut short by poison. After him, Uther would be King, but he, too, would die of poisoning. He then foretold of the arrival of a king, believed to be Arthur, who would bring peace, unify Britain, and build a great empire. Merlin then advised him to seek out another site for his stronghold quickly.

Aurelius Ambrosius

News of the arrival of the two brothers and rightful heirs had spread like wildfire across Britain. The few war leaders and nobles left after the Treachery of the Long Knives had been scattered and leaderless. Eldol, the Earl of Gloucester, who had survived the treachery of Hengist, joined up with the brothers, as did the remaining warlords and nobles who had not attended the terrible event. They brought together the clergy and crowned Aurelius Ambrosius, the elder of the two brothers, the King of the Britons.

Although there was a clamour from these lords and clergy for the King to battle the Saxons immediately, Aurelius refused. He told them Vortigern would be brought to justice for the murder of Constans and for bringing in the Saxons to Britain. With this vengeance in mind, he marched his army to Caer Guorthegirn or the city or fortress of Vortigern, now known as Little Doward, where Vortigern had sought refuge from the Saxons.

The Burning of Vortigern

There are conflicting accounts of the death of Vortigern, but according to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Aurelius and Uther, with Eldol in assistance, attacked Vortigern’s last stronghold but could not breach the walls after several attempts. Aurelius then ordered that his archers rain burning arrows upon the fortress, turning it into a fiery inferno, killing all inside, including Vortigern and Rowena.

So it was that a man who had become the King of the Britons through treachery and murder was undone by Hengist, the Saxon leader who proved more treacherous, ruthless and cunning than he. Additionally, and importantly, it was Aurelius Ambrosius, in revenge for Vortigern murdering his father and brother and for bringing the Saxons to Britain’s shores, that finally brought about his downfall.

With the legendary Vortigern dead, King Aurelius Ambrosius turned his attention to Hengist and the Saxons, writing a new chapter in the legends and folklore of the Britons of the island of Britain.

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