This article was first published on 23rd January 2020 titled Top Five Mythical Birds in Legend and Folklore by zteve t evans on #FolkloreThursday.com and has been edited and revised 2 March 2024.
Five Fabled Birds
This work briefly discusses five fabled birds: the sweet singing alkonost, the sirin, the gigantic roc, the phoenix, a symbol of hope and renewal, and the healing caladrius from the mythology, legend and folklore of different human societies in history.
In Russian folklore, the alkonost is a bird-woman creature with a woman’s head and a bird’s body. Its melodies enchanted those who heard its song to let go of everything they had known, desiring nothing more as long as they lived, having been transported to a state of pure bliss. Before becoming linked to Christian myth, the alkonost was believed to dwell on the fabled island of Buyan of Slavic and Russian lore, which resembled a bird of paradise. Although not considered a wind spirit, she was thought to have some influence over the weather because, having laid her eggs on a gently sloping seashore, she moved them into the sea where they would hatch. The hatching of these eggs causes the sea to become rough, and a thunderstorm occurs. In Christian mythology, the alkonost is said to have lived in the Garden of Eden and sang beautiful songs to inspire and encourage the saints as God’s messenger.
The Alkonost had a companion bird called the Sirin. Both were considered birds of good fortune and regarded as protective spirits. The alkonost guarded good fortune in the day while the sirin protected it through the night. Russians carved their likeness on doorways and entrances in their home for good luck. Over time, this changed, and they appeared together as alter egos of each other. The Alkonost became seen as good, while the Sirin was given a darker persona similar to Sirens in Greek mythology. While the sirin was believed to bring death, the alkonost was thought to promise eternal life in paradise to the saints.
In Russian folklore and tradition, sirins had the top half of a woman, an owl-like body, often depicted wearing a crown or halo. They were often associated with the alkonost but are believed to have origins in Greek myths concerning sirens. They were believed to live either in Vyraj or along the Euphrates River’s banks. Vyraj, in Slavic folklore and mythology, was the place birds migrated to in winter, and souls went to after death and returned to earth as birds. It was also the place where spring on earth had its origins. They were also believed to sing to the saints, but it was dangerous for ordinary mortals to hear their songs. Those who listened were said to forget their earthly life and follow sirins wherever they went, often dying. People would make loud noises, such as ringing bells and firing cannons to scare them off.
From the 17th-18th century, a change of thinking occurred, and Sirens began to be seen as symbolising peace and harmony in the world. It was believed that only happy people could hear a sirin. Even fewer were said to be able to see them being as challenging to behold as happiness can be for humans. Hence, from then on, they came to symbolise eternal bliss and joy. It is thought their image was carried on artefacts that traders and merchants from Persia traded in Russia in the eighth and ninth centuries. Pottery from near Kyiv and Chersoneso depict images of sirins, and Gospel books from between the tenth and twelfth centuries have been found, some of which portray them as birds perching in the trees of paradise.
In the mythology of the East, the Middle East and Arabic countries, the roc is a legendary enormous bird of prey. It is featured in many myths and traditions. One account of an alleged sighting by the Moroccan explorer and scholar Ibn Battuta compares it to a mountain floating over the China Seas. Rocs also appear in some stories in One Thousand and One Nights, such as those of Sinbad the Sailor. The extraordinary scene of a roc carrying off an elephant in flight appears in two Sanskrit epics: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. A similar scene was depicted in a painting by Franz Rösel von Rosenhof of a roc carrying off a deer in one talon and an elephant in the other. The 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo described the roc as a giant eagle. Its feathers were twelve paces long, and the bird was so powerful that it could seize an elephant in its claws. It could carry this high into the air and release it to fall back to earth, killing it and then feasting upon its flesh. According to Polo, the Great Khan sent his servants to Madagascar, and they returned with a huge feather. In Sinbad’s second voyage from The Arabian Nights, he encounters a roc on a tropical island, which is thought to be Madagascar.
The phoenix was a fabled bird like but not the same as the Firebird, which, according to some myths, lived in 500-year cycles. As the cycle concludes, it builds a nest, which it then sits on and spontaneously combusts, and the nest catches fire. From the ashes, a young Phoenix rises, replacing the older one. Hence, the phoenix is seen as a symbol of hope, regeneration, renewal, and the continuity of life. The phoenix was believed to have originated in Arabia and later became the mythical bird of Egypt. It was later adopted by the Greeks and Romans, spreading through most of the Christian and Western world. Some scholars think that the phoenix and the feng-huang of China may be related. Nevertheless, the phoenix, the sacred bird of the Egyptian city of the sun, Heliopolis, is the most famous.
There are various interpretations of how it was represented. Sometimes, it was seen as similar to an eagle or alternatively, a heron. Its plumage was red and gold, and it was believed to have been born in the sun and lived for five hundred years cycles. When it died, it did so in Heliopolis, the temple of the sun, and reincarnated from its ashes. To some scholars, the phoenix represents the sun’s daily cycle of rising and setting. Others see it as representing the immortality of the human soul that undergoes renewal through the continuous cycle of death and rebirth. However, different cultures have different interpretations.
An account by the Roman senator, Monilius, passed on by Herodotus in the 5th century BC, says the home of the phoenix was in Arabia, and every 540 years, it died on a nest of sweet fragrance. After death, a worm was born from the marrow and bones of the carcass, transforming into a new phoenix. According to this account, the Christian church used myrrh and incense during burials because the rising smoke symbolised the spirit’s resurrection.
In Roman mythology, the caladrius was a bird with snow-white plumage living in the king’s house. According to tradition, it could absorb disease from a sick person. It would then fly away, dissipating the sickness and curing the patient and itself. Another tradition is that the patient’s fate could be known in the following way: If the bird looked into the patient’s face, they would live. But, if it looked away, they would die. It would fly up to the sun when it drew out the illness, where the disease would be incinerated. How it gave its prognosis represented how Christ turned his face away from unrepentant sinners. For those who repent, he turned his face towards them, forgiving them. Some scholars think the caladrius was based upon a real bird, possibly a dove or a water bird like a heron or a plover. In Christian symbolism, the caladrius represents Christ, who is pure white, stainless, and utterly unblemished by sin.
Hybrids and Birds
As can be seen of these five mythical creatures, the Alkonost and Sirin are hybrids of humans and birds, whereas the roc, phoenix and caladrius are extraordinary birds from myth and legend. Nevertheless, they all played essential roles in the ancient cultures that gave rise to them, and even today, they appear in literature and films.
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday on 28th November, 2019, as The Owl of Cwm Cowlyd and Oldest Animals in the World, by zteve t evans. This works has been edited and updated 4th March 2024 and there may be different images.
The Owl of Cwm Cowlyd
Welsh folklore is rich with captivating stories and myths that have withstood the test of time. One of the most intriguing legends is centred around Welsh lake, Llyn Cowlyd, and the now dissappeared Cwm Cowlyd woods, said to be the dwelling place of the wise old Owl of Cwm Cowlyd. These tales remind us of the enduring power of imagination and the magic that can be found in the world around us. Although those woods are no more and the ancient Owl has long been gone, we are blessed to have inherited stories of this ancient night raptor. These tales speak of quests to seek out the oldest and wisest creatures on the planet. In one story, the Owl is regarded as one of the oldest animals in the world, while in the other, it is revered as the most senior of them all.
Culhwch and Olwen
The first story is Culhwch and Olwen, an action-packed hero tale from the Red Book of Hergest, written just after 1382. It was also contained in fragments in the White Book of Rhydderch, written about 1320. Both books were sources for the Mabinogion, a compilation of early Welsh oral stories by Lady Charlotte Guest from which the first of these tales is drawn.
The story tells how King Cilydd, whose wife Goleuddydd, was afflicted by madness and died after giving birth in a pig pen to a son who became named Culhwch. King Cilydd remarries, but Culhwch becomes estranged from his stepmother after she tries to persuade him to marry her daughter from another marriage, which he ardently refuses. Taking offence at his rebuttal, his stepmother casts a spell on him. Her spell made Olwen, the beautiful daughter of the dangerous giant Ysbaddaden Bencawr, the only woman he could marry, believing it would be impossible for Culhwch to achieve.
Although he had never met or seen Olwen, he became infatuated with her. His father warns him he will never be able to find her alone, advising him to seek out his cousin King Arthur for further advice and assistance. Following his father’s advice, he visits Arthur, who provides him with a band of heroic companions to aid him in his quest and, along with others, also helps later. Culhwch eventually finds Ysbaddaden and Olwen, but the giant insists that to marry his daughter, Culhwch must perform a series of tasks he believes impossible, purposely setting him up to fail.
One of the tasks was to find Mabon, son of Modron, whose whereabouts were unknown but crucial to the overall success of the quest. Finding and enlisting the help of Mabon was essential because one of his tasks required him to kill a magical wild boar known as the Twrch Trwyth. The only dog who could track the Twrch Trwyth was the hunting dog named Drudwyn, and the only man who could handle Drudwyn was Mabon. The problem was that Mabon was being held captive in some secret place and would need to be set free.
In the hope that one of the oldest and wisest animals in the world might know where he was, Culhwch and his band sought advice from the Blackbird of Cilgwri, who led them to the Stag of Redynfre, who led them to the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd. The Owl told them,
“If I knew I would tell you. When first I came hither, the wide valley you see was a wooded glen. And a race of men came and rooted it up. And there grew there a second wood; and this wood is the third. My wings, are they not withered stumps? Yet all this time, even until to-day, I have never heard of the man for whom you inquire. Nevertheless, I will be the guide of Arthur’s embassy until you come to the place where is the oldest animal in this world, and the one that has travelled most, the Eagle of Gwern Abwy.” (1)
The Owl led them to the Eagle of Gwern Abw, who led them to the Salmon of Llyn Llyw, who revealed where Modron was being held and led them to his prison. Modron was freed, and eventually, the tasks were completed.
The Ancients of the World
The second story is The Ancients of the World, from The Welsh Fairy Book, by W. Jenkyn Thomas, and it tells how the Eagle of Gwernabwym sought a suitable wife. The search reveals how some animals and birds were born in such ancient times and lived so long they had witnessed the world and landscape changing around them.
The Eagle of Gwernabwym
The Eagle of Gwernabwym had emerged from the egg so long ago and seen many changes in the world, including the arrival of humans, and had lived with his only wife for years beyond count. Sadly, she finally succumbed to her great age and passed away, leaving her husband alone in the world. Together, they had raised many children and seen the world change and grow around them. Now, he was on his own, and he was lonely. He did not want to spend the rest of his life alone, so he thought about how he could find a suitable wife and companion to keep him company. The only one he could think of was the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd, and he began discreet inquiries to be sure she was of an appropriate age.
The Stag of Rhedynfre
He was an old friend of the Stag of Rhedynfre and asked him what he knew of the age of the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd. The Stag told him,
“Look at the withered stump of an oak tree by which I lie. I remember that oak being born from an acorn. Three hundred years passed as it grew to fullness, three hundred years passed in its prime and strength. Three hundred years passed in its slow, sad demise.
Now, all you see is a stump. I have known the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd for many centuries and remember her as only ever being old, much older than I. My old friend, the Salmon of Llyn Llifon, is much older than I am. Ask the Salmon of the age and history of the ancient Owl of Cowlyd. (2)
The Salmon of Llyn Llifon
Therefore, the Eagle went to Llyn Llifon to speak to the ancient Salmon, who told him,
“For every gem on my skin and for every egg in my roe I have a year over my head. I have always known the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd as old. Go and talk to my old friend the Blackbird of Cilgwri who is much older than I. Perhaps he can help you.” (2)
The Blackbird of Cilgwri
The Eagle thanked the Salmon and searched for the Blackbird of Cilgwri. He found him perched upon a hard flint stone and asked him if he knew anything of the age of the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd. The Blackbird replied,
“Regard this stone I perch upon. When I was young it was so large and heavy that three hundred of the strongest, yoked oxen could not have dragged it away. The only wear it has ever had is the cleaning of my beak upon it each evening and the soft flutter of my wing in the morning. What you see before you is what it has worn down to in my life time which is evidence that I am indeed ancient. I have never known the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd as anything but old. I have a very old friend who is known as the Toad of Cors Fochno. He is older than I and if anyone can help you it is he. Inquire of him the history and age of the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd.” (2)
So, the Eagle went in search of the Toad of Cors Fochno, asking the same question he had asked the others.
“Look all around. The only food I have ever eaten is the dust from the earth and I have never eaten half enough to satiate my hunger. Look towards those great hills that surround this bog. In my time I have consumed as much earth as they contain. In all of my time I have never known the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd as anything other than ancient. There is no one in the world as old as the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd.” (2)
Thus, he satisfied the Eagle with the credentials of the Owl of Cwm of Cowlyd to be his wife, and he went and courted her. It was from the inquiries of the Eagle that it was recognised that the oldest creatures in order of the youngest first were: the Eagle of Gwernabwym, the Stag of Rhedynfre, the Salmon of Llyn Llifon, the Blackbird of Cilgwri, the Toad of Cors and the Owl of Cwm Cowlyd who was the oldest of all.
Gaston Phoebus, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
This article by zteve t evans was originally published on #FolkloreThursday.com and has been edited and updated 14 March 2024.
The Outlaws of Inglewood Forest
Discover the thrilling tale of William of Cloudesly, Adam Bell, and Clym of Clough, who became outlaws in the vast expanse of Inglewood Forest rather than surrender and be punished for poaching the King’s deer. Instead, they chose to live on the edge of society, defying the law and living on their own terms until becoming embroiled in a violent conflict in Carlisle that would eventually see them reconciled with the King. First, we will briefly examine the tale’s origin, followed by retelling the story. Finally, we will discuss the hidden feminine influence that moves events to the conclusion.
The Ballad
The story of William of Cloudesly is found in the 16th-century ballad “Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe, and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee,” but it may be older. Francis James Child included it in the influential 19th-century collection, “The English and Scottish Popular Ballads,” as Ballad 116. Although it is a male-dominated, rip-roaring, action-packed story, three women have significant roles, appearing at crucial moments to move the events and affect the outcome. For poaching the King’s deer in the royal forest of Inglewood, William of Cloudesly, Adam Bell, and Clym of Clough were outlawed and roamed the wooded wilds as fugitives from the law.
These unfortunate circumstances separated William from his wife and three children, and he began to miss them badly. He had left them living in Carlisle for their safety when he had been outlawed. He knew it would be dangerous to visit them, but he told his friends that he had to take the risk. Adam and Clym were horrified at the idea and tried hard but failed to dissuade him as he set off for Carlisle, promising to be careful.
William and Alice
As night descended, he quietly rapped on the door of his family home. The door opened, and his wife Alice and three children jubilantly embraced him, pulling him inside before any passersby could notice him. It was a very happy family that evening, but there was one person in the home who was not a family member but was very interested in seeing William return home. William had taken in an elderly woman, providing her with food and lodging out of the goodness of his heart before he became an outlaw.
Treachery!
Unfortunately, she was a woman of bad character. Upon William’s return, she sneaked out to inform the Magistrate and Sheriff of Carlisle of his visit. They were pleased with the information and rewarded her with a new scarlet dress. Enlisting a gang of men, the Sheriff besieged William’s home. With stout support from Alice, William defended the house, keeping the attackers at bay. The Sheriff ordered the house to be set on fire, forcing William to lower his children through the upstairs windows to safety using knotted sheets. Alice at first refused to go, bravely wanting to die at his side. Although touched by her loyalty, William pointed out the children would have no one to take care of them, and she reluctantly left the burning home.
Once alone, William put up a fierce resistance, shooting many of the attackers with arrows. Eventually, the smoke and flames forced him to jump through the window into the crowd below, where he was overpowered. Taking no chances, the Sheriff ordered that all the city gates be locked to deter any possible escape and instructed carpenters to begin building a gallows.
Adam and Clym
Many citizens of Carlisle were appalled by William’s capture. One loyal friend sent his son through a small gap in the city walls to seek out Adam and Clym, telling them of their friend’s predicament. Adam and Clym found the boy who told them the news and set off immediately.
Arriving at the city gates, they found them locked, but Adam quickly devised a plan. Knocking loudly upon the gates, he shouted imperiously for the gatekeeper. When he arrived, Adam declared that he and Clym were the King’s Messengers and, pulling out an official-looking document from his cloak, waved it before the startled gatekeeper, who could not read, and let them in. Once inside, they bound and gagged him, locking him in the gatehouse. Taking the key to the gates, they stole through the city in search of their friend.
The Fight for William
In the marketplace, at sunrise, they saw a newly erected gallows. Nearby, standing in a horse-drawn cart, was William, his hands tied behind his back, surrounded by guards and a large crowd. As the Sheriff began to give the order, an arrow struck him through the heart, and another killed the Magistrate, causing the crowd to panic and flee in all directions. Taking advantage of the confusion, Adam and Clym quickly cut their friend free.
The Mayor of Carlisle arrived and quickly enrolled men to seize them, dead or alive. Adam and Clym fired off all their remaining arrows, killing the Mayor, and the three fought their way to the gates. Adam unlocked the gates, and they made it to the sanctuary of Inglewood Forest.
The Trysting Tree
After Alice had been lowered to safety, she quietly led the children out of the town, managing to escape before the gates were locked. She took them to where the oldest tree in Inglewood Forest grew, the Trysting Tree, and where William and his friends would meet. There, huddled together, weeping in grief and fear, William, with his friends, found his beloved family.
Adam and Clym went hunting to give the family space, bringing back sufficient game to provide a feast for all. As they ate, the three friends discussed what they should do next. They knew that King John would want revenge for the killing of the Sheriff, Magistrate, Mayor, and all the others and come after them.
William decided to travel to London and ask King John for clemency before the news of the battle of Carlisle reached him. With this mind made up, he left Alice and the two youngest children at a nearby convent. With his eldest son, accompanied by Adam and Clym, he travelled to London.
King John
Finally, arriving at the palace of King John, brushing his guards aside, they marched up to his throne. They knelt before him, begging for pardon for killing his deer in his Royal Forest of Inglewood and for the battle of Carlisle. King John angrily told them they would hang. Adam tried to reason with him respectfully, pointing out they had come of their own free will.
John remained unsympathetic, insisting they would hang. The Queen reminded her husband that when they were married, he promised her a wedding present of her choice. She had yet to claim it and requested her gift be clemency for the three men. Her husband rolled his eyes but granted the request. No sooner had this been done than messengers rushed into the palace with news of Carlisle’s violent events.
King John looked intently at the three men, marvelling at how they had fearlessly presented themselves before him. He wondered what manner of fighters they were to have caused such havoc and ordered a series of archery trials to test them. The three friends quickly passed these. William suggested something harder, asking the King his opinion of an archer who could split an apple resting on his son’s head at six score paces.
The King was incredulous and told him he should like to see it done but warned that if he failed or harmed his son, then all three would hang. William tied his son to a stake, telling him to stand perfectly still with his eyes closed, and stepped out six score paces. Begging for complete silence, he aimed and let fly an arrow which cleaved the apple in two, leaving his son unharmed.
Good Fortune
King John was so impressed he employed William as his archer and made him his rider-in-chief over the north of his kingdom. The Queen hired Adam and Clym in her guard and sent for William’s family, and Alice was made the governess of the Royal children. William, Adam and Clym thanked the King and Queen, went to church to show gratitude for their good fortune, and spent the rest of their lives serving them.
TheFeminine Influence
William’s desire to see Alice and his family puts him in danger, but his betrayal by the elderly dame sparks the action. The Queen becomes the saviour of the outlaws; without her intervention, they would have been hanged. She also becomes their benefactor, bestowing gifts and status on William and his wife while reuniting the family and rewarding his friends while staying in the hands of an all-powerful king. When we look closely, we see that the triad of females all act in unison with one another.
Although it is tempting to see the elderly dame as the villainess of the piece, her betrayal inspires the events in Carlisle. These cause William and his friends to seek clemency and, in doing so, win the favour of the King and especially the Queen. Some see the triad of females—Alice, the Old Woman, and the Queen—as aspects of a kind of triple goddess looking after William and his family and friends and perhaps reminding us that events in the present we perceive as harmful, disruptive, or dangerous may be designed for our benefit.
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com on 19th December 2019, titled, Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World ,by zteve t evans and was edited and revised 14 March 2024 by zteve t evans.
The Winter Solstice
The celebration of the winter solstice is a centuries-old tradition still practised worldwide in various forms. Individual human cultures often mixed magic with religion to acknowledge and celebrate this momentous astronomical event. Here, we briefly look at five of these festivities from around the globe before discussing why they were so crucial to our ancestors and concluding with what science has to say today.
Winter Solstice at Stonehenge
Sunrise between the stones at Stonehenge on the Winter Solstice in the mid 1980s – Mark Grant, CC BY 2.5, via Wikimedia Commons
One of the most famous celebrations today is held at Stonehenge in England, where many people gather from far and wide to participate. In addition to celebrating the return of the Sun and the rebirth of vegetation, many people feel they are connecting with their ancestors and participating in an astronomical event that has existed for time immemorial. This occasion attracts many different groups of pagans, Wicca followers, Druids, Christians, and non-religious people to gather together and express their gratitude to the natural forces of the universe.
Yalda Night
Fruits used in yalda by Mohammadmosalman, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons
For many Iranians and people living in central Asia, “Yalda Night” is when family and friends come together to eat and drink. They stay awake all night and traditionally eat nuts, watermelons and pomegranates. Eating watermelons on Yalda night is believed to be especially beneficial for health and well-being and in warding off disease. For entertainment, the poems of Divan-e Hafez and other poetry are read. There is a belief in the Khorasan region that eating pomegranates, carrots, and green olives protects against scorpion stings and the bites of insects while eating garlic on Yalda night protects against joint pain. In some parts of Iran, it is customary for a young, engaged man to send presents and a gift of an arrangement of seven kinds of edible fruit to his fiancé. In some areas, the girl and her family send gifts in return to her young man.
Yule and the Feast of Juul
Before the arrival of Christianity, Yule, or the Feast of Juul, was a festival lasting twelve days in celebration of the rebirth of the Sun. In its early days, Germanic people celebrated it during the Winter Solstice by lighting fires that symbolised the Sun. Many present-day traditions originate from Yule, such as the Yule log, which was carefully chosen and taken into the home with great reverence. The broadest end was placed in the fire hearth, with the rest protruding into the room. Tradition dictated the log must be lit by someone with clean hands using the carefully preserved remains of the previous year’s log. As the new log burnt, it was slowly pushed into the fire over the Twelve Days of Christmas. Anything that remained would be carefully kept to kindle the following year’s Yule log. The ashes were scattered across fields as fertiliser; some may have been retained as a charm or medicinal use. Yule is still celebrated in various ways by different groups of modern pagans.
The Dongzhi Festival
In China and parts of East Asia, the Dongzhi Festival joins the astronomical event of the Winter Solstice, which rebalances the energies of yin and yang in nature. The yin qualities of cold, dark days are gradually replaced by warmer, lighter days of yang energy. It is not the start of winter but marks the extreme point of winter. It originated in the Chinese Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), and its traditions and customs varied from region to region. People visited each other, sharing specially prepared food, and prayed at the tombs of their ancestors and relatives.
It was a cold time of the year, so warming foods were prepared and shared, which varied from area to area. People in northern parts of China cooked wonton, mutton and dumplings. In parts of southern China, people enjoy noodles and tangyuan as a festive treat. Tangyuan is a dish of glutinous rice balls, sometimes made in bright colours and served in a sweet or savoury syrup or soup. Eating tangyuan is a family activity for many Chinese people in China and worldwide. The round dishes and rice balls symbolise the unity and togetherness of the family circle.
Inti Raymi of Peru
The Inti Rayma is a Winter Solstice festival celebrated in Peru in June instead of December. The solstices are reversed in the Southern Hemisphere to those of the North. It was initially an Inca celebration with sacrifices of animals and possibly children honouring the Sun God, but the Spanish conquerors banned it. In the Inca religion, the Sun God was the most revered of their gods. In the Quechuan language, Inti means “Sun,” and Raymi means “celebration”, so Inti Raymi is the celebration of the Sun God. In Inca tradition, Inti Raymi was created by Pachatutec, the first Inca to celebrate the winter solstice, the first day of their New Year in the Inca calendar.
Although the winter solstice begins around the 21 June, the Incas believed it stayed in the same place, finally rising on the 24 June. Because of this, the Inti Raymi will occur in the exact location in Cusco on 24 June. The leading participant in the ceremony was the Sapa Inca, who ruled the kingdom of Cusco and later the Inca Empire. The nobility and the Inca army joined him in the festival. The participants had to go through three days of purification. During this period, they fasted and were only allowed to eat white maise and certain herbs. The participants painted their faces yellow and wore deer heads, and throughout the rituals, there was dance and music.
On 24 June, the Sapa Inca took to a stage to drink a maise-based beverage called chicha de jora to publicly honour the Sun God. In the Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun, the Sapa Inca sat with mummies of his dead ancestors before kindling a fire using a concave mirror to reflect the rays of the Sun. With the ceremony over, the Sapa Inca returned to his palace. The Inti Rayma was revived in the 20th century without the sacrifices and is celebrated today.
What is the Winter Solstice?
The winter solstice is a twice-yearly astronomical event of great significance for the dwellers of planet Earth. The word “solstice” is derived from Latin meaning “sun stands still” because the Sun appears to pause before reversing its direction (1). When the winter solstice occurs in the Northern Hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa.
The Importance of the Winter Solstice
The ancients observed that the days became progressively shorter and cooler after the summer solstice. Around the time of the autumn equinox, vegetation turned brown and died as daylight diminished while darkness increased until the winter solstice. The December Solstice marks the beginning of astronomical winter, and the days gradually become longer and brighter (3). Conversely, the next three months are generally the coldest of the year because the earth and water have cooled. The returning Sun gradually reheats the earth and water, bringing warmer weather and more light, stimulating plants to renew their leaves. Herbivorous animals depend on plants for food, and plant renewal is essential for maintaining the food chain that humans rely upon. The regularity of the winter solstice helped the ancients plan necessary tasks throughout the year, such as sowing crops, breeding animals, preparing and storing food and provisions, brewing wine and beer and many other tasks to give them the best chance of surviving the cold, hard days after the solstice.
Science and the Sun
Earth – Image by NOAA Satellites, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Our ancestors lacked modern technology and scientific knowledge. They knew nothing of how the warming and cooling of the oceans affect weather patterns around the world or of photosynthesis and how plants renewed their leaves, but they did know some things. According to NASA, probably the foremost scientific organisation on the planet,
“Nothing is more important to us on earth than the Sun. Without the Sun’s heat and light, the earth would be a lifeless ball of ice-coated rock. The Sun warms our seas, stirs our atmosphere, generates our weather patterns, and gives energy to the growing green plants that provide the food and oxygen for life on earth.” (4)
The ancients knew the Sun’s importance to the earth and consequently to their lives and knew it without modern science. In modern times, the winter solstice is a time for us to thank our ancestors and their ancient wisdom and, of course, the Sun and the Earth for sustaining us.
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com titled Ship’s Cats in Legend and Folklore written by zteve t evans and has now been edited and updated by zteve t evans and posted here 1st April, 2024.
Cats at Sea
For centuries, ship’s cats have sailed the seven seas with humans. They were not usually taken along as pets or tourists but played a crucial role in controlling vermin. Rats were a common problem on ships, so cats, as their natural enemy, were brought on board to control their population.
Vermin Control
The presence of rats or mice onboard a ship increases the chances of damage to cargo, affecting profits for both the crew and owners, placing the health and safety of the crew at risk, and endangering the vessel. Rodents eat anything edible, such as grain or other foodstuffs, which need protection. Even vessels carrying non-edible goods are at risk from rodent infestation because sufficient crew provisions and stores must be taken to last a voyage. They also damage a ship’s workings by gnawing on inedible items like rope or woodwork. Even modern vessels are at risk if rodents nibble through electric cables and hoses, which could lead to fires or breakdowns. Furthermore, their waste products can contaminate any edible cargo, and they also carry fleas and parasites, which can spread disease quickly in a confined environment like a ship. Cats, being natural predators, made a good choice for rodent control onboard while offering companionship to the sailors.
Domestication of Cats
Cats are believed to have lived alongside humans for thousands of years before becoming domesticated about 9,000 years ago. However, cat owners will tell you that cats domesticated humans! One theory says they were attracted to the mice and rats that were drawn to the cereals early farmers were growing and harvesting. In this way, a relationship of mutual benefit between cats and humans developed.
In ancient Egypt, cats were taken onboard boats on the River Nile to hunt birds in the thickets that grew along the banks. Evidence from DNA implies that cats spread from ancient Egypt by maritime traders on ships along sea routes. Their ability to catch rodents was believed to be the significant factor in their spread. Many trading vessels carried at least one cat, transporting them from port to port and advancing their range. Viking ships also took them on their journeys as pest control, and the Norwegian Forest Cat was thought to have been used for this purpose. The 15th to 18th centuries saw the growth of shipping, taking the domestic cat worldwide.
Many myths and legends evolved around cats during their voyages. One type of feline highly sought after for rodent control on ships was polydactyl cats. Normal cats usually have five toes on each forepaw and four on both hind paws, making eighteen. In contrast, polydactyl cats have extra toes on either front or rear hind paws and sometimes all four. Polydactylism is an inherited abnormality more common in felines in the southwest of England, Wales, Kingston-Upon-Hull in the UK, and along the coast of New England and Canada. However, the origin of polydactyl cats is difficult to determine. The consensus is that they were spread from ships leaving Boston, Massachusetts. Having extra toes was believed to give them additional stability and agility. These supposedly enhanced attributes helped them catch rodents, making them sought after as a ship’s cats.
Cats and Superstition
Many sailors believed cats had the power to protect ships from inclement weather. It was also believed that if a cat approached a sailor on deck, that was good luck, but if they only approached halfway and then turned back, that was unlucky. If a cat was seen to lick its fur against the grain, a hailstorm was imminent, and if it licked its fur with the grain, rain could be expected. A lively, frisky cat heralded an imminent wind.
During the Second World War, cats were quite common on-board ships. The advent of mass media and improved telecommunications propelled many ship’s cats to stardom and celebrity status. Controlling rodents on warships was an important task, and a cat’s presence helped boost the crew’s morale.
Ship’s Cat Emmy
The RMS Empress of Ireland had a ship’s cat named Emmy. She was an orange tabby who was said to have never missed a voyage except one, a very crucial one. On May 28th, 1914, Emmy went missing while the Empress was in the port of Quebec City, which was deemed unusual as she had a litter of kittens onboard. Although the crew found her, she left again. Despite being considered a bad omen to go without the ship’s cat, the Empress of Ireland departed without her. The following day, while steaming through the mouth of the St. Lawrence River in thick fog, the Empress collided with the SS Storstad. She sank with the loss of 1,000 people. It was unusual for Emmy to leave the ship, especially as she had a litter of kittens, so one cannot help but wonder if she was forewarned by instinct.
Ship’s Cat Felix
The Mayflower ll was a replica of the Mayflower, the ship that transported the Pilgrim Fathers to the New World in 1620. It set sail from England on April 20th, 1957, recreating the Pilgrim Fathers’ voyage to symbolize the solidarity between Great Britain and the US. She arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts, on June 13th, 1957, to receive a hero’s welcome. On the voyage and crew, the Mayflower II also carried a cat named Felix. According to crew journals, Felix was a very young kitten when he was brought aboard. He did not take to life on the ocean waves too quickly, possibly because he was so young. Nevertheless, he soon grew strong and healthy once he had become accustomed to life at sea. He was taken aback when flying fish landed on deck, preferring his canned fish.
The crew expected him to be shocked upon arriving in the US and discovering he wasn’t the only cat in the world – a potential hit to his ego. However, he had to get there first. During the voyage, he suffered an accident, resulting in a broken paw, which the ship’s doctor reset and healed fully. A wave almost washed him overboard, but a crew member grabbed him in the nick of time. Despite his near misses, he made it across the Atlantic.
On July 1st, 1957, the Mayflower II was towed up the East River to New York, where Felix became a celebrity appearing in magazines such as National Geographic, Yankee, and Life. Felix and the rest of the crew participated in a New York ticker tape parade. He was finally adopted by Ann Berry, the girlfriend of the cabin boy, who lived in Waltham, Massachusetts.
In 1949, a cat named Simon was aboard the HMS Amethyst during the Yangtze Incident, a historic event in the Chinese Civil War. Simon is the only cat ever awarded the Dicken Medal, the animal equivalent to the Victoria Cross. In March 1948, 17-year-old Ordinary Seaman George Hickinbottom from HMS Amethyst found Simon in the dockyards of Hong Kong, undernourished and in poor health and about 12 months old. Hickenbottom took pity on him and smuggled him aboard the Amethyst. Fortunately, he soon made friends with the crew and officers and was very good at catching the rodents onboard. He was something of character that would leave presents of dead rats in the beds of crew members and curl up and fall asleep in the captain’s hat.
The commander of the Amethyst was Lieutenant Commander Bernard Skinner, who soon made friends with the cat. Simon also went along when the Amethyst was sent up the Yangtze River to Nanjing to relieve the HMS Consort. En route, the Amethyst came under bombardment from shore batteries of the People’s Liberation Army, and significant numbers of the crew were killed and wounded, including Commander Skinner, who died. Simon also sustained terrible wounds and was taken to sick bay. Medics removed four pieces of shrapnel, but he was not expected to live. However, he survived to become the scourge of the rodents on board. His efforts helped to save the valuable supplies and boosted the remaining crew’s morale. Despite attempts at rescue by the Royal Navy, the ship was prevented from moving until July 30th, 1949, when she made a daring dash for freedom at night.
In gratitude for his bravery and success in keeping rodents under control in dangerous circumstances, he was given the rank of Able Seacat Simon. He also received the Blue Cross medal and the Amethyst campaign medal. On return to the UK, he succumbed to an infection and sadly passed away. He was posthumously awarded the Dicken Medal and buried with full naval honours, and his obituary appeared in The Times.
In 1975, The Royal Navy stopped allowing animals on board their ships for hygiene reasons, although many private ships and boats still carry them, possibly more as pets than for vermin control.
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com as London Folklore: The Legendary Frost Fairs of the River Thames by zteve t evans on December 27, 2018, and has been revised and edited with images added 4 March 2024 by zteve t evans.
Thames Frost Fairs
The historic Frosts Fairs held on the River Thames in London are depicted in several works of art that show how cold, icy, and severe the weather became during those events compared to the weather experienced in the capital in modern times. The idea of a Frost Fair on the icy surface of the River Thames in London may seem like a flight of fantasy today, especially when one appears or is mentioned several times in one of the UK’s favorite sci-fi television series, Dr Who. In one of the scenes set during the 1814 Thames Frost Fair, the doctor encounters an elephant walking across the frozen surface of the Thames. In another episode, the doctor takes River Song to the same event to celebrate her birthday. The Thames Frost Fairs are featured in two tracks on “Snow on Snow” by The Albion Christmas Band, a beautiful collection of Christmas and winter songs on CD. Today, the idea of such a novel event with crowds of people, stalls, entertainment and all the fun of the fair on the frozen River Thames may seem surreal. Nevertheless, it has happened several times in the past. Here, we look at some of these times and see how it affected Londoners, what they did, and how they coped in those frigid times.
The Little Ice Age
The River Thames has long been an important trade and transport route, and many large and small businesses flourish around it. The river swarmed with large and small boats crewed by watermen, who ferried people and goods up, down and across the river. Many people lived, worked, and died around the river, and a rich culture of folklore and legend evolved, some of which still exist today. With the great river’s importance to Londoners, how would they cope when it suddenly stopped flowing and froze solid, allowing no ships or boats to travel up, down or across it?
A series of sudden exceptionally cold periods of extreme wintery weather have caused this to happen several times. Although such a notion may seem nothing but legend and folklore, it is a historical fact that the River Thames has frozen several times, hard enough for usual daily commerce to be temporarily impossible. These extreme cold events happened during a period known as the Little Ice Age that lasted from 1300 to 1870. Expert opinion varies on this and the causes and is not dealt with here. It was also known to have frozen over in even earlier times. During the winter of 1536, Henry VIII was said to have enjoyed a sleigh ride to Greenwich from the center of London on the Thames ice. In 1564, Elizabeth I strolled upon the ice and practiced archery on the frozen river.
The worst of the big freezes occurred between 1550 and 1750, and during the winters of 1683 – 1684 and 1715 – 1716, the Thames was frozen for three months, but most events were usually much briefer. However, when it did freeze over, it brought the river and much of the city’s daily business to an abrupt halt. Nevertheless, Londoners, being innovative and enterprising, changed what they did to suit the weather. In its frozen state, the river became a highway that wagons and coaches could traverse while the boats were stuck in the ice. Furthermore, it became an extension of the land, offering new opportunities not just to make money but also to have fun and Londoners like to have fun.
In 1608, the first recorded London Frost Fair occurred on the icy surface of the River Thames. During December 1607, the ice was thick enough for people to walk from Southwark to the city. By January 1608, the ice was thick and solid enough for a host of activities on its surface. A small town of stalls, booths and tents sprang up, selling many diverse kinds of food and drink. Tradesmen such as shoemakers and barbers set up stalls selling their wares and services and even lit fires on the ice to keep warm and use for cooking.
The Frozen Thames 1677 – Abraham Hondius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Among them, skittles, bowling, and many other sports and activities took place for people to enjoy and participate in. Another popular game was “folk” football, unlike modern football, where two teams compete, and rules are followed. This competition was between two mobs with few rules which often became chaotic, unrestrained, riotous events.
The Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84
The diarist, writer and Fellow of the Royal Society, John Evelyn (1620 – 1706), provides an on-the-spot, eye-witness account of the event often called the Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84. On January 6, 1684, in his diary, he wrote,
“The frost continues more and more severe; the Thames before London was still planted with booths in formal streets, all sorts of trades and shops furnished, and full of commodities, even to a printing press, where the people and ladies took a fancy to have their names printed, and the day and year set down when printed on the Thames: this hum our took so universally, that it was estimated that the printer gained £5 a day, for printing a line only, at sixpence a name, besides what he got by ballads, etc.
Coaches plied from Westminster to the Temple and from several other stairs to and from, as in the streets, sleds, sliding with skates, bull-baiting, horse and coach-races, puppet-plays and interludes, cooks, tippling, and other lewd places, so that it seemed to be a bacchanalian triumph or carnival on the water, while it was a severe judgment on the land, the trees not only splitting as if the lightning struck, but men and cattle perishing in divers places, and the very seas so locked up with ice, that no vessels could stir out or come in. (1)
Evelyn tells how even printers got in on the act. One name, Croom, had the idea of cashing in on the event’s novelty by selling souvenir cards for sixpence each. They carried the customer’s name and the date and proclaimed that it was printed on the frozen Thames. These were extremely popular, and Croon was said to make five pounds daily. Even King Charles II was said to have brought one. This impromptu frost fair began the rise of Chipperfield’s Circus, which also provided entertainment.
The sheer novelty of the frozen Thames inspired many enterprising and opportunistic citizens to make the best of the severe weather while making money and having fun at the same time. Despite the cold, young and old folk flocked to the frozen river in their thousands to enjoy the various activities and events that suddenly sprang up.
From a Print of the Frost Fair, 1684, we learn that hackney carriages and horse-drawn carts used the frozen river as a road. A street of booths and stalls sprang up selling beers, brandy, and every kind of alcoholic beverage, and there was music and dancing and many other entertainments and booths that sold hot coffee and food,
Hot Codlins, Pancakes, Duck, Goose, and Sack, Rabit, Capon, Hen, Turkey, and a wooden Jack. In this same street before the Temple was made, There seems to be a brisk and lively Trade:
There Roasted was a great and well-fed Oxe, And there, with Dogs, Hunted the cunning Fox; Dancing o’ th’ Ropes, and Puppit-plays likewise, The like before we’re seen beneath the Skies; (2)
Events such as blood sports and folk football took place, and all sorts of merchants and traders brought their wares and services to sell on the ice. As more people flocked onto the frozen Thames, there was more money to be made, and the atmosphere became increasingly Bacchanalian with stalls selling liquor doing a roaring trade and each competing for custom from quaint, though aptly named booths, for example,
Where e’ry Booth hath such a cunning Sign, As seldom hath been seen in former time; The Flying Piss-pot is one of the same, The Whip and Egg-shell, and the Broom by name: (3)
With its increasing popularity, there was more money to be made, and even more diverse trades set up shop on the ice. As well as being a place of novelty and entertainment, it became a market where all sorts of goods and merchandise were sold, and prices became higher on the ice than they were off it. Not everyone approved of what was happening on the Thames ice. For some people, the drunkenness and debauchery among the revelers and the shady dealings of many river traders caused concern that it was bringing out the worst in people.
The Frost Fair of 1715-16
Londoners were hit by another hard winter in 1715-16 when heavy snowfalls blanketed the city, and it was so cold that the Thames froze for almost three months. Once again, London entrepreneurs took to the ice, erecting booths, tents, and pavilions selling all kinds of goods and services. People flocked onto the frozen river to have fun. On January 19, two oxen were roasted over fires upon the ice. The activities on the frozen river drew people away from the theatres, and the Prince of Wales visited the Frost Fair.
Once again, entrepreneurial printers set stalls on the ice, publishing all sorts of printed paraphernalia. The Dawks were a London family of printers and booksellers, and one of them, Ichabod Dawks, published a regular newsletter called Dawks’ Newsletter, and on January 14, the news was,
“The Thames seems now a solid rock of ice; and booths for the sale of brandy, wine, ale, and other exhilarating liquors, have been for some time fixed thereon ; but now it is in a manner like a town: thousands of people cross it, and with wonder view the mountainous heaps of water, that now lie congealed into ice. On Thursday, a great cook’s-shop was erected, and gentlemen went as frequently to dine there as at any ordinary. Over against Westminster, Whitehall, and Whitefriars, Printing-presses are kept upon the ice, where many persons have their names printed, to transmit the wonders of the season to posterity.” (4)
Horse-drawn wagons, coaches, barrows, carts, and vehicles of all sorts were taken onto the ice, transporting goods and people upon the frozen surface, and a preacher aroused and warmed his congregation with an enthusiastic sermon.
The Thames, being a tidal river, was also subject to the tides as well as the frost and cold. An abnormally high tide raised the ice by fourteen feet, flooding cellars in buildings alongside the river but not putting the revelers out of their stride. On February 15, the ice began to thaw and split, ending the party.
The Great Frost of 1739-40
The winter of 1739-40 was another severe event remembered for the intense frost and cold and produced another Thames Frost Fair. It began on Christmas Day and lasted into the New Year before finally beginning to slowly thaw on February 17 and becoming known as The Great Frost. The weather was said to be more severe than the weather around Hudson’s Bay, Canada. The less impoverished and working-class citizens struggled to find food, fuel, and water. With the weather so bad, many traders, such as the watermen who worked on the Thames, fishermen, carpenters, bricklayers, and many other trades, could not operate. A march was held to bring their plight to the attention of the rich and the rulers of the city, who granted some relief to the suffering people.
A few days after the arrival of the Great Frost, a powerful storm struck the Thames and its estuary, causing considerable damage to boats and vessels. Icebergs and floes caused havoc and eventually froze together, covering the surface of the river to create an alien scene of a snowy field with small uneven hills of snow and ice and icebergs protruding through the icy white surface.
When the weather settled, another Frost Fair sprung up on the ice of the Thames, selling all sorts of goods and services. Again, the printers were there, and there were the usual drinking and eating booths, puppet shows and a wide variety of entertainment and sports. A carnival atmosphere prevailed as the people sought to forget the problems and difficulties that the severe weather brought. The ice lasted for about nine weeks before it thawed and broke up.
The Frost Fair of 1767-68
At the end of December 1767, a severe frost began and strengthened until January 16, causing the River Thames to freeze again. Ships, boats, and river vessels became trapped in the ice, and many were severely damaged or sunk by the ice flowing with the tides. During this period, many lives were lost, and the price of meat and food increased so much that impoverished people could not afford it. The Lord Mayor of London, Thomas Harley, provided subsidies for bringing fish to the Billingsgate market, helping to alleviate the suffering. Nevertheless, the less well-off citizens suffered great hardship in London and the surrounding countryside, where roads were impassable. Coal, fuel, and food became scarce and expensive because they could not be transported, and the severe weather caused many accidents and deaths. A violent storm also caused chaos and damage in the city, amounting to £50,000, a considerable sum of money in those days.
The Frost Fair of 1788-89
A severe frost began on November 25, 1788, and lasted seven weeks. On January 5, the Thames froze over, as before, a fair and market with puppet shows, drinking and eating booths, and even exhibits of wild animals appeared on the ice.
The Gentleman’s Magazine reported that on January 10, 1889, thirteen men drove a wagon carrying a ton of coal from Loughborough, Leicestershire and delivered it to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House. The clerk of the cellars paid them four guineas, but when His Highness heard of their feat, he ordered them to be rewarded with 20 guineas and a pot of beer each. On January 13, the Prince of Wales donated £1,000 to relieve the impoverished during the severe weather.
On Saturday, January 17, the captain of a ship negotiated an agreement with a publican to secure his boat to his premises, which lay close to the Thames bank. An anchor was taken into the publican’s cellar and made fast. At the same time, a cable was attached to a structural beam of the building. In the night, the weather and currents took hold of the ship, causing the publican’s structure to be destroyed and five people killed. (5)
The magazine also reports that in February 1789, entertainment and booths appeared on the ice of the Thames with all manner of entertainment. All kinds of food and drinks were sold with fires roasting oxen, sheep, and pigs. Once again, the Thames became a place of carnival and festival, yet, despite the merriment, the poorer citizens suffered terribly with little food, water, or fuel for warmth. There was little work to be had that could be done to earn money, and the City of London raised 1,500 pounds to alleviate the suffering. (6)
The last frost fair on the frozen River Thames began on February 1, 1814, and lasted four days. As with previous Frost Fairs, an enterprising printer named George Davis set up a stall and typeset, printed, and published a 124-page book titled Frostiana; or a History of the River Thames in a Frozen State, which he sold as a souvenir. Again, stalls and booths sprang up, selling a vast array of goods, wares, and services. The watermen, unable to work, used the sails from their boats to make booths and tents to accommodate the selling of food such as roast meat and gingerbread.
While tea, coffee and hot chocolate were readily available, gin, beer and wine were more popular. These beverages were sold in “fuddling tents, “temporary makeshift inns. A variety of entertainments were held on the ice, including skittles, football, ox roasts and dancing. The watermen charged for entry onto the ice and to watch events such as an ox being roasted. Often, the same families whose ancestors had provided these services for previous Frost Fairs were the providers this time. The atmosphere was raucous, with a lot of drunkenness and people being fleeced of money. There were no policemen in those days, and the watermen kept order, broke up fights and controlled the ice. As previously mentioned, one of the most novel events was when someone led an elephant across the frozen river, creating an extraordinary scene.
Problems and Hardship
Frost Fairs on the Thames were not all fun and frolic; they also brought massive problems and hardship. The severe weather that produced the conditions to enable a frost fair also brought issues for Londoners. John Evelyn tells us,
“The fowls, fish, and birds, and all our exotic plants and greens, universally perishing. Many parks of deer were destroyed, and all sorts of fuel so dear, that there were great contributions to preserve the poor alive. Nor was this severe weather much less intense in most parts of Europe, even as far as Spain and the most southern tracts. London, by reason of the excessive coldness of the air hindering the ascent of the smoke, was so filled with the fuliginous steam of the sea-coal, that hardly could one see across the street, and this filling the lungs with its gross particles, exceedingly obstructed the breast, so as one could scarcely breathe. Here was no water to be had from the pipes and engines, nor could the brewers and divers other tradesmen work, and every moment was full of disastrous accidents.” (7)
When the ice started to melt and break up, it became treacherous, causing death to people and animals, damage to property, and flooding. The harsh weather also affected people in the countryside, other parts of the UK, and Europe.
Future Frost Fairs
The Old London Bridge (1176-1825) was one of the most iconic images of London and partly responsible for the Thames freezing over. Its design slowed the water and trapped ice floes, causing them to clog up the river and freeze together. The river was shallower, broader, and flowed slower than today, making it easier to freeze. In 1831, the Old London Bridge was demolished and replaced by one designed to have wider arches that allowed the river to flow unimpeded. Also, the construction of the Thames embankments made it deeper and flow faster, reducing the chances of it freezing over on its way through London, with the same intensity as in the past.
Another factor that might contribute to preventing a big freeze on the scale of the past is the heat given off by the mass of tarmac, concrete, and heated buildings, which helps keep London warmer in winter than areas outside the capital. Conversely, in the summer, it can make it uncomfortably warmer. That being said, no one knows what the future will bring with global warming, and there may be a few surprises.
London Folklore
The Thames Frost Fairs became a part of the rich bank of London folklore. Works of art and literature of the time give future generations a vivid impression of the sheer novelty and rarity of these rare unique events enjoyed, but also suffered, by Londoners. The Frost Fairs were a testament to the endurance and enterprising spirit of Londoners and an example of their ability to make the best out of what must have been tough times for many people.
As time passed, legends emerged from historical events as facts became exaggerated and embellished, enhancing their novelty for later generations whose curiosity is aroused by the differences between what they experience in the present and what happened in the past.
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com by zteve t evans on 21/03/2019 under the title The Curious Case of Princess Caraboo. It has since been revised and edited by zteve t evans 19 April 2024.
Princess Caraboo
In the spring of 1817, a young woman appeared in the quaint Gloucestershire village of Almondsbury, claiming to be none other than Princess Caraboo from a far-off land. Her sudden arrival caused quite a commotion in Regency England, with locals and dignitaries eager to learn more about this mysterious and exotic visitor. And so began the captivating tale of Princess Caraboo. This story would soon capture the hearts and imaginations of people nationwide. She had sleek black hair, was about 5ft 2 inches tall, did not have the appearance of someone used to hard physical work and was dressed strangely.
To the bewilderment of all, she spoke an unknown language, apparently not understanding any questions in English and appeared lost and confused. Her only possessions were her clothes, a counterfeit sixpence and a couple of halfpennies. Possessing counterfeit money was a serious crime, and she was not carrying any form of identification, so her identity could not be determined. She was taken to the local Overseer of the Poor, who took her to the county magistrate, Samuel Worrall of Knole Park. Worrall, or his American-born wife, Elizabeth, could not comprehend her either but, using signs, managed to understand that she called herself Princess Caraboo.
The Worralls
Mrs Worrall decided she should be taken to the local inn, where she would be given supper and a private bedroom for the night. In the morning, she would visit and talk to her further to decide what could be done for her. On arriving at the inn, Caraboo saw a painting hung on a wall depicting a pineapple. Excitedly, she recognised it repeatedly, calling it “ananas”, a word in some Indo-European languages for a pineapple.
While waiting for supper, she conveyed she desired a cup of tea. She was given one, but before drinking, she bowed her head, covered her eyes, appeared to murmur a prayer in an unknown language, and then sipped the tea. When it was gone, she was offered a refill but would only accept it once the cup had been thoroughly washed, and she repeated the same ritual. After her supper, she was shown to her bedroom, and with her host’s bemusement, she prepared herself for sleeping on the floor, even though her room had a good bed. After the landlady’s daughter demonstrated how to use it, she knelt in prayer, undressed, and got into bed.
Manuel Eynesso
Worrall sent her to the Mayor of Bristol, John Haythorne. But he could not understand the girl either and sent her to St. Peter’s Hospital, as the law required. At the same time, further investigations were made for a possible trial. While in hospital, a Portuguese sailor named Manuel Eynesso contacted the authorities, claiming he could speak her language. The authorities agreed to let him talk to her, and after doing so, he told them her name was Princess Caraboo, and she was foreign-born. She came to England from an island called Javasu in the Indian Ocean after pirates had abducted her and had sailed to England with her on board. She had managed to escape the ship by jumping overboard in the Bristol Channel and swam ashore.
Kidnapped in Javescu
Samuel Worrall and his wife were convinced by what she had told them. They believed she was a royal princess who had suffered terribly at the hands of pirates and invited her back into their home. While there, a well-to-do gentleman who had travelled extensively to China and the East Indies took an interest in her and attempted to communicate with her using signs and gestures. In this way, she appeared to confirm her name was Caraboo and that her father was a man of high status in her country of birth, China, though she called it Congee. Furthermore, she confirmed she had been kidnapped by pirates in a place called Javasu and worshipped a god called Allah-Tallah. He also apparently learnt that her mother was a Malay woman who had been killed in fighting between cannibals called Boogoos and the Malays.
The day she was kidnapped, she had been in the company of her maidservants walking in the gardens. Pirates led by someone called Chee-min had captured, bound, and gagged her and carried her off to their ship. Furthermore, she asserted when they untied her, she attacked two of the pirates, killing one and wounding the other. After 11 days, she was sold to a ship’s captain named Tappa Boo, who set sail for Europe. On reaching England and sailing up the Bristol Channel, she escaped by jumping overboard and swimming ashore. On reaching shore, she wandered around for six weeks before arriving in Almondsbury.
Celebrity Status
For the press and media, the incredible adventures of a brave foreign princess, kidnapped by pirates and transported half around the world, was an opportunity not to be missed, and she became a celebrity. Lords, ladies, and other dignitaries flocked to meet the brave and exotic princess. She did not disappoint them, showing off her skills with a bow and arrow, giving fencing demonstrations and swimming naked in the estate lake. Before going to bed at night, she would pray to her god and sometimes climb to the top of a tree to commune with her god. All her high-ranking visitors were wildly enthralled by this strange, exotic princess and her bizarre behaviour and language.
As her fame spread, she dressed in exotic clothes and had her portrait painted, which was printed in local newspapers. However, while looking through a copy of the Bristol Journal, a boarding housekeeper named Mrs Neale instantly recognised her as Mary Baker (born Willcocks), a cobbler’s daughter from Witheridge, Devon, who had lodged with her.
When the truth became known, the press may have been expected to vilify and condemn Mary Baker, but conversely, the opposite happened. They lampooned and lambasted the Worralls and all their learned rural gentry who had let a simple, uneducated girl make fools of themselves. She had successfully pulled the wool over their eyes, becoming a celebrity twice over and, in two months, something of a folk heroine.
The press, ignoring their own part in creating the sensation, ridiculed and satirised the individuals, gentry, and intellectuals involved. The fact that a poor, uneducated, working-class girl had managed to fool so many upstanding and well-to-do individuals was a great source of mirth for many people up and down the country, and the public lapped it up.
The Crucial Factor
So, how did a relatively uneducated, poor, homeless girl manage to fool such eminent people? For a start, despite her lack of education, she was intelligent and quick-witted. She quickly realised they believed she could not speak or comprehend English because they talked about her in her presence, thinking she did not understand. It was this behaviour that had helped her to lead them on and manipulate them, which is why she always seemed so credible. They also showed her books and pictures of foreign places and languages, which further helped her. The Worralls gave her food and shelter, which was possibly enough motivation for a poor homeless girl. Moreover, and perhaps above all, she was getting attention as someone of significance and interest to many important people.
Did Mary deliberately mislead them, or was there something else? According to Mrs Neale, Mary was a strange girl who made up languages from gipsy words she had picked up on her travels. Could she have been suffering from some personality or psychiatric disorder, perhaps something in the Autistic Spectrum or Asperger’s Syndrome?
Mary in America
Mary was given a boat fare for Philadelphia and left on June 28th, 1817. Mary’s story was known in America, and she was greeted enthusiastically as Princess Caraboo and gave performances of the princess in theatres. In 1824, she returned to England, giving performances of Princess Caraboo in London’s New Bond Street and Bath and Bristol, where she married, became pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter in 1829.
In 1839, she was known to be selling leeches to the Bristol Infirmary Hospital, which may have involved the unpleasant task of collecting them. Although animals were sometimes used to attract them, collectors often used their legs, and problems caused by infections and blood loss were a high risk for collectors. Mary died on Christmas Eve, 1864, and was buried in an unmarked grave in Hebron Road Burial Ground, Bedminster, and Bristol.
Whatever Mary’s real motives were in creating Princess Caraboo are hard to decide. Nevertheless, whether it was an intentional hoax, a personality disorder or something that just spiralled out of control, the flamboyant and mysterious persona she created was not forgotten after her demise. Her story is told in the 1994 film, “Princess Caraboo,” directed by Michael Austen; a novel “The Curious Tale of the Lady Caraboo,” in 2015, by Catherine Johnson; several stage musical adaptations and a stage musical, Princess Caraboo, with a book, with lyrics by Phil Willmott and composed by Mark Collins.
File:Carabu 1.jpg – Wikimedia Commons – The book’s text by JF Nicholls (d. 1883) and John Taylor (d. 1893). Death dates citation: doi:10.1093/library/s1-V.1.86. Images by unknown engravers, and thus are PD due to age, per the relevant British legislation, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Beowulf is an anonymous long poem originally written in Old English; the language commonly spoken in England in Anglo-Saxon times. It is named after its protagonist, Beowulf, a warrior from Geatland telling of his heroic adventures, great strength, courage, and prowess in battle. As well as providing an exciting story, its hero displays all the desired virtues of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and warrior class in which it is set, making Beowulf a role model and inspiration for others of the time to follow. The main events of the poem tell how he defeated two monstrous beings and ended with a battle with a flame dragon that cost him his life.
Beowulf and JRR Tolkien
The poem has influenced many modern works, such as The Hobbit, There and Back Again, and The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien. Fans of Tolkien will recognise many of the motifs and themes in the poem. In 1936, Tolkien gave a distinguished lecture, “Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics,” published in the journal Proceedings of the British Academy. A translation of the poem “Beowulf” was published posthumously. The underlying theme of the poem is the mortality of humankind and the struggle to live in an unsympathetic and often unfriendly world, which inevitably brings defeat and death in due time regardless of fame, status, and achievement. There are many versions of the and presented here is a retelling of the poem about Beowulf’s battle with the flame dragon and his death, influenced by various sources listed below.
In his youth, Beowulf led a group of young men to Denmark, intending to kill the monstrous giant Grendel, who had been attacking and killing the Danish warriors of King Hrothgar of Denmark. He encountered and fought Grendel in the king’s great hall, defeating and mortally wounding him. But Grendel manages to escape Beowulf and return to the lair he shares with his mother at the bottom of a lake, where he dies.
His mother, seeking vengeance, returned to the royal hall, and killed one of King Hrothgar’s earls. Beowulf tracked her back to the lake. Entering the water, he sank to the bottom and found a cave where the two monstrous beings had their lair where he fought and killed the giant’s mother and cut off Grendel’s head to take back as proof of victory.
On return, Beowulf won great praise for slaying the monsters and was richly rewarded by King Hrothgar of Denmark. Returning to his homeland of Geatland, he was welcomed by King Hygelac, his uncle, who proclaimed him the greatest warrior in the northlands. Songs and stories were made of his encounter with Grendel and his monstrous mother, and his fame spread far and wide.
A Stranger at the Door
After King Hygelac was killed in battle and death took his son and heir, Beowulf was crowned King of Geatland. Beowulf’s rule was long and happy, and the country prospered. Beowulf grew wiser and more dignified with age, and his people loved and looked up to him. Despite his fame and past success, he yearned for a chance to prove himself once again in a test of strength and courage. He had won many battles, but nothing matched the slaying of Grendel and his monstrous mother, and he grew restless.
One dark winter night, as Beowulf sat in his mead hall with his earls about him, there came a frantic knocking at the door. On opening the door, the doorkeeper found a ragged stranger begging to be taken to the king. The man was poorly dressed for a cold winter’s night, and what he did wear was torn and dirty. Disliking liking the look of the man, the doorkeeper forbade him entry. Wiglaf, the son of Weohstan, one of the king’s most faithful earls, came over to see what was happening. On seeing the state of the man and the terrified look on his face, he spoke to him, saying:
“Welcome stranger, the night is bitter and I see you shiver. I know not whether you shiver from the cold or some unknown terror, for I see fear in your face and eyes. Whatever the cause tell us your name and come in and eat and drink with us and explain yourself to our king.”
The Stranger’s Tale
The stranger became confused, and his head jerked this way and that. Wiglaf, thinking the man was refusing to say his name and rejecting the hospitality offered, dragged him before the king, for him to decide what should be done with him. Beowulf leaned forward, set his keen blue eyes upon him, and, looking kindly upon the shivering, ragged stranger, told him he had nothing to fear and gently asked him why he had such urgent business with him on such a cold wintry night. The stranger knelt before Beowulf and said in a trembling voice:
“Sire, I have no name and I have no home, and because of this, these last few days I took to wandering in the wilds in search of a place I could shelter through the winter. This morning, I found a great barrow, and seeking shelter I found an entrance that turned into a long tunnel. The tunnel at least offered the potential of shelter, so I followed it until I entered a great wide and high space and found it lit by some unknown light. Looking about I was amazed to see piled all around the side masses and masses of gold and silver artefacts and many, many chests of precious jewels of all kinds and colours. Indeed, the worth of all this treasure must be beyond measure. Then I realised the light was coming from a sleeping dragon that glowed in the dark, lighting up the cave, and in terror I ran back the way I had come.”
Beowulf, astounded at his tale, asked him if he was telling the truth. The stranger did not flinch but reached inside his ragged cloak and brought out a beautiful gold cup inlaid with gems of all colours that was a most excellent work to behold. He place it into Beowulf’s hands and told him this alone was tiny part of a great horde of treasure. Beowulf rose to his feet and spoke to his earls,
“We have seen by the evidence that this man brings that he is no liar. This cup is surely beyond price and could there be another as beautiful on Earth? The dragon has hoarded the treasures of our forefathers all these long ages and guarded his treasure well. Soon he will know a piece is missing and he will come searching for it and seek vengeance. I ask for eleven followers from you who will come with me to the lair of the dragon. We will slay the beast and take back the treasure of our forefathers that is ours by right. We must put an end to this great terror before it awakens and finds it has been robbed. For those who come there will be bold deeds to be done and more treasure than can be imagined. Who will dare follow me?”
The Dragon Awakens
As Beowulf spoke back in its lair, the dragon awoke. Instantly, it knew an item of its treasure was missing. Surging down the tunnel and out into the open, it took to the night sky, seeking out its treasure and breathing fire upon the homes and settlements of the Geats in vengeance. Then, it came to the mead hall of Beowulf. Circling around, it sensed the presence of its missing cup. While the dragon, unknown to the hall’s occupants, circled above in the night sky, Wiglaf stepped forward and volunteered his services to his king’s call.
Beowulf picked the best from the many who begged to be part of this adventure. Just as he named the last warrior, a mighty roar shook the hall’s roof, and the walls and ground trembled. Immediately, he ordered the doors to be secured. It was the custom that the earls disarmed while in the security of the king’s hall. As red and yellow flames licked under the door, Beowulf cried out to them to escape and seek their weapons and armour to battle the beast that now breathed fire at their door. He commanded his chosen companions to meet in the forest, where they would be out of sight and form a battle plan, but first, they ensured their loved ones were in a safe place before the titanic battle began. All night, the dragon wrought havoc across Geatland, burning and scorching villages and towns.
The following day, Beowulf rendezvoused with his eleven chosen earls in the forest and told them sternly, that they must put an end to the havoc the beast was causing. To achieve that he told them it was necessary to confront and slay the beast in its lair before it set the whole of Geatland aflame. But even as he spoke, the flame dragon somehow knew of the plan and hastened back to its lair to protect its treasure.
Beowulf and the Flame Dragon
Beowulf led his company through the forest to where the stranger had told them to lay the barrow near the coast, which was the dragon’s lair, arriving as night was falling. The barrow was a massive earth mound situated in a broad space clear of trees that had been raised in some long-forgotten time. The trees all around were scorched and blackened, having borne the fury of the flame dragon, and the ground was trampled all around by the great feet of the beast. Beowulf told his companions,
“You must wait here at the edge of the forest and I must go alone to face the dragon. Wait ready to support me should I need it. I am old and now I see as in a dream that this will be my last battle, my final fight. Stand ready.”
With his orders given he stepped forward to challenge the flame dragon, taking up his sword and iron shield. As he moved boldly forward, fear took hold of his chosen companions. All, except the faithful and loyal Wiglaf, ran off into the forest to hide in the darkness amongst the trees. With his mind set upon the entrance of the great barrow, Beowulf knew nothing of their desertion, with his will and powers concentrated on facing the great flame dragon. He could hear it approach and felt the earth tremble at the tread of its feet. He cried:
“Come out, foul beast! I Beowulf, King of Geatland, son of Ecgtheow, challenge you. Come and try your strength against mine, come out and face me!”
Wiglaf stood waiting and ready to assist from the edge of the clearing. The flame dragon heard the challenge inside the barrow and issued forth with a mighty roar and a tremendous burst of red and yellow flame from its mouth. The beast was massive and covered in grey scales, with a long tail and great feet armed with razor-sharp claws. Its red eyes were aflame, and its gaping mouth and nostrils spurted fire so hot that Beowulf needed to raise his iron shield to protect himself from the heat.
Holding his sword ready and sheltered by his shield, he rushed forward and struck blow after blow, but his sword was turned away each time by the scaly armour of the dragon. With each breath, flames and heat spurted from the maw and nostrils of the beast, forcing Beowulf to make quick attacks and then retreat out of range. Although the dragon was a massive and powerful beast that could have killed him easily if given a chance, Beowulf used his superior speed, agility, and cunning to circle and weave around it, making himself a hard target to hit. With each quick attack, he sought the weak spot he knew the dragon would have. Moving this way and that, bewildering the beast, making it angry and lash out with its tail. All the time, he moved closer, ever seeking out that vulnerable, soft place to which a well-aimed drive with his sword would bring its death.
The flames from the dragon lit up the night, and the stench of its breath caused Beowulf to gag, but he held back the feeling and continued weaving around the dragon, making darting strikes. At times, the dragon advanced upon him and took advantage, only for Beowulf to dodge out of its reach and launch an attack on an unguarded part of its massive body before retreating out of range again.
Wiglaf Joins the Fight
Although Beowulf enraged the beast, he found himself struggling. His iron shield was heavy and growing too hot to hold, his sword arm was now weary from wielding blow after blow, and his legs began to give way. The faithful Wiglaf on the edge of the clearing had watched the deadly fight. Seeing Beowulf’s strength fading, with a great shout, he ran to his side. Hearing this gave Beowulf renewed strength, and with shields raised, they struck blow after blow. Seeing another enemy further enraged the dragon, and it sent from its mouth a great jet of orange and yellow flame that completely burnt Wiglaf’s wooden shield to ashes.
Quickly, Beowulf pulled Wiglaf into the shelter of his iron shield, and the two fought on. With Wiglaf now in the fight, Beowulf felt renewed vigour and struck the dragon a blow on the head that caused his sword to melt before his eyes. The creature was momentarily stunned but quickly recovered and launched a frenzied attack. Seizing Beowulf by the neck with its jaws, it sank its poisonous fangs into his throat, causing blood to spurt in all directions.
While the dragon was so occupied, Wiglaf ducked underneath and, seeing a pale spot on its underbelly, drove his sword in deep point first with all his might. The dragon fire flickered and began to fade, and Beowulf was released. Mastering his pain, he drew a long knife he carried at his side. He cut through the dragon’s neck, severing its head from its body before the agony of the poisoned wound brought him to the ground.
Wiglaf ran to Beowulf as a great shout rang out from the forest, and having watched from a distance, the earls who had run away now returned. Wiglaf stood over Beowulf with his sword in hand, facing them, and said:
“Get you gone, cowards, touch not the King or I will slay you one and all. My king has been poisoned in a magnificent fight. Away, or I’ll slay you all!”
Then, kneeling before the broken king, Wiglaf undid his helmet and took him into his arms, saying: “Sire, stay with us in your hour of victory!” Beowulf opened his eyes and said:
“No, my faithful friend Wiglaf, this is your victory. I name you king. The treasure is yours to do as you will with it. Just bring one piece that I may see it and hold it before I die which will be soon, therefore make haste.”
Wiglaf plunged into the dragon’s lair with all haste, and what he saw astounded him. In that place, the dragon had gathered the greatest treasures of its long history. Never had Wiglaf seen such a horde, but he had no time to stop and stare. From the piles of heaped treasure, he quickly selected a magnificent, jewelled crown and ran swiftly back to Beowulf. Showing it to him, he gently placed it upon his head, telling Beowulf it was fitting crown for a great king such as he. Beowulf smiled faintly and said:
“I go now and I forgive those who ran from me in my hour of need. I thank you good and faithful Wiglaf for standing by me and now sharing my last moments. Carry me to the Whale’s Headland and build me a barrow there. Now I sleep.”
Wiglaf ordered Beowulf’s body to be carried to the Whale’s Headland, where he ordered a great barrow to be built. Then he commanded that all the treasure be brought from the dragon’s lair and laid under the pyre of Beowulf to be burnt so that it should go with him to the next world. Despite the immense value of the treasure that would be lost to the flames, not a single cowardly earl dared raise an objection.
The people of Geatland gathered to pay final homage, give thanks, and say goodbye to their king. They dragged the bulk of the dead dragon to the cliffs and sent it tumbling into the sea. Then Wiglaf placed the great sword of Beowulf on his chest, and with the jewelled crown from the dragon hoard upon his head, he was carried to the pyre. As night fell, Wiglaf placed two burning brands in the pyre. The flames took hold and flared up bright, filling the night with fire. Then, the people marched in procession around the burning pyre until dawn came, and there was nought left but ashes.
So, Beowulf, King of the Geats and the greatest hero of his age, ended his life on Earth.
The Last Word
Although the poem is set in Scandinavia, it was written in England between the 8th and 11th centuries. It may have existed in some form or in parts before that. As a product of its time, it can be studied and enjoyed in many ways, and it still has a place in the rich cultural heritage of Britain. Its heroic and virtuous hero and its deadly monsters and dragon provide great entertainment, and much has been said about them. Its significance to Tolkien was that it was written in Old English, which our own form of modern English has evolved from, linking us back through the ages to those times. The last word here goes to him:
“Yet it is in fact written in a language that after many centuries has still essential kinship with our own, it was made in this land, and moves in our northern world beneath our northern sky, and for those who are native to that tongue and land, it must ever call with a profound appeal – until the dragon comes.” (1)
According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Uther Pendragon was King of the Britons during the turbulent times of the Saxon and Irish invasions. He sired Arthur Pendragon and a daughter named Anna, sometimes known as Morgause (1), both destined to play significant roles in the future of Britain and its people.
Uther was a strong king and a courageous warrior but could also be vain, quick-tempered, impulsive, and ungrateful. This impulsiveness and ingratitude came to the fore when he fell passionately in love with Igraine, the young wife of one of his oldest and most loyal nobles, Gorlois, the Duke of Cornwall. Gorlois had served the king bravely and faithfully and, through his wisdom, had turned an impending defeat into a resounding victory for Uther, who may have been expected to show his thanks and gratitude in another way.
Nevertheless, Uther’s burning passion for Igraine drove him to unleash a violent and bloody war to satisfy his lust, aided by Merlin’s subtle arts and magic. This work draws from Geoffrey of Monmouth, Gildas and Wace, bringing together the potent elements of lust, violence and deception mixed with the magic of Merlin that King Arthur, and his sister Anna was concieved. Arthur would become the defender and great hope of the Britons and from Anna would come a line of kings to rule Britain.
The Prophecy of Merlin
Uther became King of the Britons of the island of Britain after his brother, King Aurelius Ambrosius, died from poisoning. As Aurelius lay seriously ill in Winchester, Pascentius, the son of Vortigern, and Gillomanius, the King of Ireland, had landed with an invading army. With Aurelius incapacitated, Uther, accompanied by Merlin, led the army of the Britons to meet the invaders, who had no idea of the fate that would befall his brother.
On his way to the battle, Uther encountered a most remarkable spectacle, which was seen in the skies. There appeared a star of such magnitude and brilliance it was seen both day and night. The star emitted a single ray of light, creating a fiery mass resembling a dragon’s body and head. Shining from the mouth of the dragon came two rays of light. One extended out across the skies of Britain and over Gaul. The other extended out over the Irish Sea, culminating in seven lesser beams of light. Such was its magnitude. It could be seen across Britain and beyond and filled the people with fear and dread, not knowing what it might portend. n seeing it, Uther called Merlin to him and asked its meaning. Merlin looked up at the sky and cried out in sorrow,
“O irreparable loss! O distressed people of Britain! Alas! the illustrious prince is departed! The renowned king of the Britons, Aurelius Ambrosius, is dead! whose death will prove fatal to us all, unless God be our helper. Make haste, therefore, most noble Uther, make haste to engage the enemy: the victory will be yours, and you shall be king of all Britain, For the star, and the fiery dragon under it, signifies yourself, and the ray extending towards the Gallic coast, portends that you shall have a most potent son, to whose power all those kingdoms shall be subject over which the ray reaches. But the other ray signifies a daughter, whose sons and grandsons shall successively enjoy the kingdom of Britain.” (1)
Image 2 – Comet by Heinrich Vogtherr the Younger, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (cropped)
Predictions
In short, Merlin predicted the death of King Aurelius Ambrosius, his elder brother and Uther would succeed him as king. He also predicted Arthur and Anna’s destinies from the star and its rays. Arthur would become king, drive out the invading Saxons, bring peace to the country, and build an empire in Europe. Ana would be the progenitor of a lengthy line of Kings of Britain.
Although undoubtedly impressed by the heavenly display, Uther doubted Merlin’s interpretation. Maybe he did not want to believe his brother was dead, and perhaps he did not want to be distracted by thoughts of taking the crown. Maybe the prophecy that his son would build a great empire and that the future Kings of the Britons would come from his daughter was too much of a distraction. However, he was a pragmatist and knew the immediate peril lay before him, whatever the future, and he was determined not to fail. He was now less than half a day’s march from Pascentius and Gillomanius, who presented a real threat that could not be ignored or postponed. Therefore, with great determination, he pushed on to meet them head-to-head in battle.
The two sides attacked each other on sight, and a furious and bloody fight ensued that raged unchecked throughout the day. Eventually, Uther and the Britons gained the advantage. When Pascentius and Gillomius were killed, the Irish and Saxons fled the field, making for their ships. Uther gained a stunning victory, confirming the accuracy of the first part of Merlin’s prophecy. The next day, as Uther and his troops were savouring their victory, a messenger arrived from Winchester with the grievous news of the death of his brother, King Aurelius Ambrosius. The messenger told how he had been buried in the Giant’s Dance, the monument he had caused Uther and Merlin to bring to Britain, thus sadly confirming another part of the prophecy.
King of the Britons
Returning to Winchester victorious and as the rightful heir to the throne by popular consent, Uther was made king of the Britons of the island of Britain and formally crowned. The celestial spectacle he had seen before the battle and the predictions made by Merlin that had so far proved true had left an impression on him. He ordered that two small figures of gold representing dragons should be made. One he gave to Winchester Cathedral, and the other he took with him in all his future military engagements, which would be many. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, he took the epithet Pendragon from this time onwards. He became known as Uther Pendragon, which means “head of the dragon,” though this is challenged by some scholars who say it means Head-Dragon, or Chief-Dragon, or commander-in-chief. Although he could not know it, the final parts of Merlin’s prophecy would continue to unfold and flower in his lifetime and climax beyond. However, in the present, he had to deal with a series of Saxon threats that would test his leadership to the full, though he would prove to be victorious in all.
The Capture of Octa and Eosa
His brother Aurelius had defeated and executed the Saxon leader Hengist, and the remaining Saxons under Octa and Eosa had sued for mercy. A covenant had been made to ensure that they lived peacefully in lands given by Aurelius and no longer launched attacks against the Britons. But now, with the death of Aurelius, Octa and Eossa no longer considered themselves obliged to keep the covenant. They had been joined by the Saxon survivors of the army of Pascentius that Uther had defeated. With superior numbers and inspired by the death of Aurelius, the Saxons attacked and destroyed many towns and cities in the north. Leading an army of Britons north, Uther caught up with them as they besieged the city of York. The Saxons turned their attention from the town to attack the Britons furiously, eventually forcing them to retreat.
Image 3
Uther and his army took shelter on a mountain crowned by a wood and split by a deep ravine. In the night, knowing he was on the verge of defeat, he summoned his lords and captains to discuss their situation and find a way forward. Gorlois, the Duke of Cornwall, recommended a bold surprise attack at night upon the Saxon camp. To all present, this seemed the best option, and Uther agreed. Under cover of darkness, the Britons took the Saxons by surprise, capturing Octa and Eosa alive and causing the rest to fly the battle, leaving Uther victorious, whereas he had been facing defeat.
Easter in London
According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, after imposing peace on the north of Britain, Uther Pendragon travelled to London with Octa and Eosa in chains and imprisoned them there. He decided to celebrate the Easter festival in the great city and summoned his nobles and commanders to join him. Uther wanted to emphasise his power to his barons and the people by wearing the crown throughout the celebrations. All the dignitaries brought their ladies and families to be entertained most lavishly by King Uther Pendragon, the most powerful man in Britain at the time and he made sure they took note of his power, authority, and generosity when pleased.
Lust for Igraine
Gorlois, the Duke of Cornwall, whose military advice had saved Uther from defeat and gained a remarkable victory over the Saxons, also attended with his wife, Igraine. She was a woman of outstanding beauty and much younger than her husband. When King Uther Pendragon first set eyes on her amid all the stunning ladies present, he instantly became infatuated with her. From that moment on, she dominated his every thought. Throughout the celebrations, he served her personally, giving her the best food on silver platters and wine in goblets of gold. All his attention was given to her and her alone, not attempting to conceal his feelings in public.
Noticing Uther’s behaviour towards his wife, Gorlois took great offence and decided to stage a walkout in protest. Despite attempts by his friends to persuade him to stay, he refused to be swayed and left, taking his wife with him without asking for the king’s permission. Uther was angry at Gorlois for not asking his permission to go but more furious that he had taken the object of his infatuation with him. He was determined to both show his absolute power and satisfy his lust for Igraine. He sent Gorlois a summons ordering him to return to beg his forgiveness for what he claimed was an insult. Gorlois angrily refused, seeing Uther’s behaviour as an affront to his dignity. He returned to Cornwall, taking his wife with him.
Uther, a slave to his infatuation, mustered his army and marched on Cornwall, laying waste towns and cities. Gorlois could do little to prevent him due to the superior numbers of the king’s forces. Instead, he fortified his towns and sent Igraine to Tintagel, his safest refuge. This place was not the remains of the castle we see today but possibly some other type of early fortification that was later replaced. Then, he awaited the coming of Uther at his stronghold of Dimilioc. In this way, he thought their separation would give a greater chance of survival for one or the other.
When Uther learned of this, he besieged Gorlois in Dimilioc but could not break the walls. During the entire time, his mind burned with desire for Igraine, and he could think of nothing else. Finally, he could stand it no longer. He summoned Ulfin, one of his friends, for advice. He admitted to him his great love for Igraine and that he feared that if he did not soon have her, then the passion he held inside for her would kill him.
The Arts of Merlin
Ulfin advised him that Tintagel could not be taken by force, being virtually surrounded by sea. It could only be reached by a narrow path of rock, making it possible for a few armed and determined men to defend against a vast army. He advised Uther to seek the arts of Merlin as he believed he alone would have the skill and knowledge to help him in his predicament. Having no other plan, Uther agreed, and Merlin was summoned, and the problem was explained.
Merlin proposed that he would make Uther into the likeness of Gorlois by using potions and hidden arts. Furthermore, he would also alter the appearance of Ulfin into that of Jordan of Tintagel, a friend of Gorlois, and he would change himself into Bricel, another friend of the duke. He planned that while the army besieged Gorlois in Dimilioc, they would ride to Tintagel.
Because of the changes to their appearance he had enacted, they would believe Uther to be Gorlois, Ulfin to be Jordan and Merlin to be Bricel and give them entry and allowing Uther admittance to Igraine. Having no other hope Uther agreed to the plan.
Merlin used his potions and arts to induce the transformations for the three. When all was done, they rode to Tintagel, arriving in the evening twilight. Seeing who they thought was Gorlois, Jordan and Bricel, the sentries gave them entry. Uther gained admittance to Igraine, and she, seeing only her husband, gave herself entirely to him, and Uther spent the night with her. In the guise of Gorlois, Uther told her he had allowed Dimilioc Castle to be besieged to draw the enemy away from Tintagel to keep her safe. Igraine believed all his words and gave everything he desired that night.
The Making of a King
Image 4 – Transformed, Uther, Merlin and Ulfin Ride to Tintagel
It is said that to make space for a new life in the world, someone must die. On that night, Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall and the lawful husband of Igraine was killed in battle by Uther’s army at Dimilioc. That night, amid violence, lust, and magic, a life was conceived that would become Arthur, the greatest of the Kings of the Britons, and another part of Merlin’s prophecy was slowly beginning to unfold.
In the morning, a messenger arrived urgently requesting to speak to Ygraine. They brought news of the fall of Dimilioc and the death of her husband. However, such were the arts of Merlin; they were shocked to see someone they believed to be Gorlois sitting alongside his wife, hale, healthy, and very much alive. Uther, in the likeness of Gorlois, then embraced Igraine, saying,
“Your own eyes may convince you that I am not dead, but alive. But notwithstanding, the destruction of the town, and the slaughter of my men, is what very much grieves me, so that there is reason to fear the king’s coming upon us and taking us in this place. To prevent which, I will go out to meet him, and make my peace with him, for fear of a worse disaster.” (2)
With the deception now complete and his lust satiated, the magically transformed Uther took his leave of Igraine and left Tintagel with his friends. Merlin then caused them to lose their disguise, and they rejoined the British army at Dimilioc. Uther called his commanders to report to him, and he was told of the end of the siege of Dimilioc and how Gorlois had died.
Although he was genuinely sorry for the duke’s death, he was happy that he was now free to marry Igraine. Returning to Tintagel, he took Igraine as his wife, and they lived in love and happiness. They had a son named Arthur, who became the king of the Britons, and a daughter named Anna or Anne, later known as Morgause.
Uther Pendragon had his heart’s desire, but the world of the king of the Britons was still dangerous. Sickness and disease have no more respect for kings and mighty warriors as they have for poor peasants, and a crippling malaise took Uther. To compound his woes, the Saxon leaders, Octa and Eosa, escaped their prison in London and returned to Germany. Reports came back that they had raised a massive army intending to return and conquer Britain once and for all. These reports were verified when a great fleet landed a great army of Saxons and their allies in the north of Britain. Immediately, the invaders attacked the town and the cities and left the countryside in ruins.
Uther, now virtually incapacitated through illness, entrusted the defence of the north to one of his consuls, a brave warrior named Lot of Londonesia, whom he had given in marriage his daughter Anna, who Merlin had prophesied would provide the future Kings of Britain.
The greatest enemy the Britons had was their pride, for they were often reluctant to obey Lot’s orders, making the realm’s defence much more challenging and less successful than it should have been. Finally, upon hearing this, Uther summoned all his commanders to appear before him and berated their foolishness. In disgust, he swore he would lead the army himself despite his sickness. He commanded a special horse-drawn carriage to be built that would carry him at the head of the army of the Britons into battle.
The Half-Dead King
In his carriage at the head of the army, he travelled to Verulam, now known as St. Albans, to confront Octa and Eosa, where they were laying waste to the countryside. When these two Saxon chiefs heard the sick Uther Pendragon was leading the army of the Britons in a horse-drawn carriage, they mocked him and refused to fight. They called him the “half-dead king” and said that it would humiliate them to fight a sick man on his deathbed and withdraw into the city. In their pride and contempt of Uther, they left the gates open.
As soon as Uther heard of this, he attacked immediately, hoping to profit from their foolishness. His Britons attacked the city, and when the Saxons saw their danger, they were forced to repulse them before it was too late. The battle raged all day until nightfall brought rest to both sides. Realising they were disadvantaged in sitting out a siege, the Saxons decided to try their luck in open battle, hoping to either defeat the Britons or break through their lines and escape.
At dawn, they marched out of the city, and the ensuing battle was bloody and fierce and raged all day. At last, Octa and Eosa fell, and leaderless, the Saxons ran away, leaving the Britons the victors. Those Saxons that escaped headed north, raiding towns along the way. Uther wanted to lead the army of the Britons after them. However, his commanders persuaded him not to because of the increasing severity of his illness.
Seeing they were not being pursued motivated the Saxons to attempt to conquer the entire kingdom of the Britons. They had always been skilled in the arts of betrayal and deception, and now they sought to bring about the death of Uther Pendragon by poison. They sent spies into the camp of the Britons in disguise and spied out the king’s habits. On discovering he was apt to drink from the waters of a clear spring, they poisoned it, causing him sudden death. With the death of Uther, the clergy and nobles bore his body to Mount Ambrius, where he was buried in the Giant’s Dance alongside his brother Aurelius Ambrosius and the victims who fell in the “Treachery of the Long Knives,” the mass assination of British noble by Hengist.
King Arthur Pendragon
According to early chroniclers, the Saxons were encouraged by the death of Uther Pendragon. With their numbers swelling daily with reinforcements from Germany, they sought to take over the entire country and exterminate the Britons on the island of Britain. With the realm of the Britons in dire peril, the clergy and the nobles made Arthur, the son of Uther Pendragon and only fifteen years old, the king of the Britons. Despite his youth and inexperience, he was to go on to free the Britons of the Saxon, build an empire across Europe, and fulfil his part in the prophecy of Merlin. Yet throughout his life, he would be haunted by lust, betrayal, deception and magic, the very elements that had brought him into the world. He would become the most famous of legendary British rulers and heroes, the “once and future king,” who would return one day to save his country from future peril., and from his sister, Anna would come a line of Kings to rule Britain,
Image 1 Conjured using Copiliot Designer using the commands, “A king a comet and a dragon over the map of Britain the style of Celtic art” by zteve t evans Content credentials Generated with AI ∙ 12 June 2024
Image 3 – – Conjured using Copiliot Designer using the commands, “Gold statuette of a celtic dragon in medieval art style” by zteve t evans – Content credentials Generated with AI ∙ June 13, 2024 at 10:20 PM
Image 4 – – Conjured by zteve t evans using Copiliot Designer using the commands, “Three horse riders galloping under a moonlit night in the style of Gustav Klimt,” Cropped version June 13, 2024 at 10:20 PM.
Llyn Cwm Llwch, a small Welsh lake in the Brecon Beacons of Powys, is shrouded in strange legends and folklore. Three of the most intriguing tales associated with this unique lake include encounters with a dangerous elderly woman, the mysterious Tylwyth Teg and an invisible island, and an otherworldly guardian who emerged from the lake’s depths to thwart an attempt to drain its waters. This guardian, wielding mysterious powers, issued a chilling warning and invoked the token of the cat, revealing a peculiar story of an unfortunate feline’s drowning. The legends of Llyn Cwm Llwch are as captivating as they are mysterious.
The Old Woman of Llyn Cwm Llwch
The elderly woman of the lake was said to prey upon those who were weak-minded or had a trusting nature and were easily led, such as children. The legend tells that she used music to gain the attention of her victims and to lure them into the water, where they were drowned. She may be the Welsh equivalent of Jenny Greenteeth, who appears in English folklore as a dangerous water hag and may also have been an invention that deterred children from playing around the lake’s edge. Whatever she was, her evil ways were motivated by her ambition to regain the beauty of her youth and to gain immortality, which could only be achieved by luring nine hundred victims into the lake to their death.
According to another local legend, the lake was the abode of the Tylwyth Teg, or the Fair Folk, who had a garden on an invisible island in the lake. On May Day every year, a doorway would appear in a rock by the lakeside. Those humans bold enough could pass through it into a passage, which would take them into an enchanted garden on the lake’s island. Although visitors to the island could see the shores of the lake, the island and the garden were not visible from the lake’s shore.
Intrepid folk passing through the door and down the corridor found themselves in a paradise filled with beautiful flowers of incredible colours and intoxicating scents. Brightly coloured butterflies and dragonflies visited these, and songbirds sang happy songs of peace as they flitted from tree to tree. In this marvellous setting, the Tylwyth Teg treated their guests by providing food and drink of a quality and taste unmatched on Earth.
After the sumptuous feast, the immortal hosts then entertained their mortal guests with songs, music, and wondrous stories to give them an unforgettable experience that would stay with them for the rest of their lives. All the Tylwyth Teg asked of their guests was one thing and one thing only, and it was so simple and reasonable that it had always been readily complied with for years untold. Because of the magical nature of the place, they requested that all who visited should not take with them a single item from the island or garden when they returned through the door.
Now, it is said that humans have short memories, and the Tylwyth Teg never forget. Ever since they had opened the door to accept visitors to their garden, there had never been a single transgression of this rule. Unfortunately, a time arose when one irresponsible and ungrateful guest wanted something more than just a memory of his incredible time on the island. This wretch had noticed that no one was being searched or checked to enforce this rule. So, looking around to ensure no one saw him, he picked a beautiful flower that did not grow on Earth, hid it inside his jacket pocket, walked casually back down the passage and passed through the door.
The second he stepped out the door and placed his foot on Earth, all his senses left him. He fell to walking backwards in circles, talking nonsense gibberish and lost all ability to reason. He remained in this terrible state until the day he died, which mercifully for him came quickly. The Tylwyth Teg appeared to ignore the betrayal. It took no notice of the man, taking leave of their guests with their usual good manners and courtesy. However, the following May Day, the door never appeared, nor did it appear in the following years. The door to the enchanted garden on the island of the Tylwyth Teg has never since been seen.
A Century Passes
(3) Image by William Blake – Public Domain
With the door not appearing for one century, the local people began to wonder what had become of the Tylwyth Teg and speculated they had left the lake and moved somewhere else. Many stories and legends remained, telling of the wonderful times when people had visited their enchanted garden on the invisible island in the lake. The more they reminisced, the more exaggerated the stories became. They talked about the treasure of the Tylwyth Teg and wondered if they had taken it with them. A band of local men got together and formulated a plan to drain the lake in the hope that the treasure of the Tylwyth Teg could be found at the bottom.
Carrying pickaxes, shovels, and spades, they gathered at the lake and began digging a channel to drain the water. As they were about to break through to the lake, thunder rolled, and forks of lightning filled the sky, causing the men to stop. They instantly realised this was not an ordinary storm but of supernatural origin triggered by their digging of the channel. Terrified, they dropped their tools and froze in fear as the lake came alive. From the centre of the lake, wild waves formed in concentric rings and a colossal figure of an elderly man rose from the lake crying,
“I am the Guardian of the Lake, If you disturb my peace, Be warned that I will drown The valley of the Usk, Beginning with Brecon town,” (1)
Next followed a deafening roll of thunder and lightning bolts that leapt out of the sky to strike the ground around them. The elderly guardian towered above them and roared in a voice like the thunder,
“Remember the token of the cat!”
A terrific thunderclap split the air, and lightning crashed upon the mountain as he disappeared. The men threw themselves on the ground in fear. As the storm slowly subsided, they regained their nerve. Picking themselves up, they gathered in a circle to discuss the terrible events. The guardian’s warning seemed clear, but they were perplexed about what he meant by saying, “Remember the token of the cat.”
Thomas Sion Rhydderch, an elder among them who knew the locality well, came forward and told them: “Many years ago, when I was just a lad, I would bring sheep up to the mountain to graze, and a local woman asked a favour of me as I led the sheep up the track. She gave me a bag and told me that inside was a cat that had grown to be a nuisance to her. She asked me to give it to the lake, as I was on my way there anyway. I told her I would, and when I arrived, I tied a large stone to the bag with my garter and gave the cat to the lake as I had been asked.
The bag with the cat in it sank straight to the bottom of the lake, as you would expect, and I thought no more of it. The next day, I decided I would go fishing on Llyn Syfaddon. When I took the boat out, I was astounded to see the bag with the cat still in it, though dead, floating in the middle of the lake. The stone was gone, but my garter was still attached to the bag, so I knew it was the same one I had given to Llyn Cwm Llwch. Now, no streams connect the two lakes, and they are, as you know, miles away from each other. I was much astounded and terrified and have never told a living soul about this until today.”
Underground Connection
The group of men listened in astonishment. After much discussion, they decided there must be some unknown underground connection to Llyn Cwm Llwch and Llyn Syfaddon. They agreed that they had been warned that if they attempted to drain Llyn Cwm Llwch, the much larger Llyn Syfaddon would defend the smaller and flood the town of Brecon and the Usk Valley. They realised that if they were right, there must be some means of communication between the two bodies of water, which they did not understand. It was decided that they should abandon their work before something unnatural and entirely beyond their control happened. Taking up their tools, they made their way home, leaving Llyn Cwm Llwch in peace, which remains to this day.
Under the influence! 
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