The article details the daily routine of Maharaja Ranjit Singh,  whose empire stretched from Peshawar to Satluj, and till Kashmir and Ladakh in the 19th century.

Account by Osborne

W.G. Osborne- British Military Secretary, spent a month with the Maharaja in 1838 at Dinanagar in Gurdaspur district & noted the routine of the Maharaja.

The Maharaja woke up at 4.30 am in summers & 6 am in winters.

He would start the day with a “brisk gallop at 5 am”.

On inquiring whether they had breakfast or not, and the reply being in negative, he ordered breakfast to be served at the spot.

The breakfast consisted of rice, curry, sweetmeats, fat cakes stuffed with spices, mango jam and milk.

Alexander Burnes, writing in 1832 mentions that milk was used in his meals everyday and also sweetmeats:

“Four trays of sweetmeats followed with fruit, and this concluded with sherbet mixed with snow, the sight of which delighted us as much as our new friends.”

At Lahore, the Maharaja would wake up at 6 am in winters, prostrated before Guru Granth Sahib & went out for a brisk ride.

He inspected the troops at 8 am and had his breakfast.

At 9 am he held court, issued orders, received reports & examined financial accounts carefully.

The Maharaja took his lunch at around 12 pm and it consisted of a large platter: pulao, curd, bread, milk & fruit.

Bara Rice

The Maharaja was very fond of ‘Bara’ rice, which grew at Peshawar.

The grain of this variety of rice was 0.64 inches long, brown in colour & had a sweet fragrance.

After resting for an hour, The Maharaja listened to the recitation of Guru Granth Sahib for an hour.

Another court was held at 2.30 pm, which continued till 5.30 pm.

After this, the Maharaja would enter his inner appartments followed by his guests and dancing girls.

Wine, Whiskey & Dancing Girls

The Maharaja had 150 dancing girls, and couple of them he married, like Moran Sarkar.

He would drink wine in large quantities, sometimes mixing with brandy.

He was very fond of English whiskey and opium too.

His wines were prepared from fruits, Kabul grapes, Orange, Kashmiri apples, etc.

Emily Eden, sister of Lord Auckland remarked that Ranjit Singh used to drink a horrible spirit like water, which no European could even swallow a drop of it.

The ‘Chakhna’ with his drinks consisted of sweets, fat quails (बटेर) stuffed with spices, fruits, etc.

His one eye was always inflamed due to effects of opium or wine during his drinking sessions.

After the entertainment, the Maharaja would have his dinner, and spent an hour in meditation.

He would spent some time in the palace and would retire to bed by 9 pm.

When he was not in Lahore, he would either has gone for  hunting trip or would tour his kingdom.

Kennel

The kennel of Maharaja Ranjit Singh consisted of varied types of dogs, procured from Afghanistan to Sindh.

He was gifted 5 hounds by Nawab of Bahawalpur in 1831.

He had several hawks too, which were sent as tribute.

The hounds & hawks were used during hunting.

Ram-Fighting

Maharaja Ranjit Singh was fond of ram fights.

In 1828 at Rohtasgarh, he was offered two rams. He selected one ram, which fought against the ram of Raja of Rohtasgarh. Maharaja’s ram won the fight.

He was also fond of rowing & had many boats on the Ravi river for recreation.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh was very fond of hunting pigs.

Dress

Maharaja Ranjit Singh wore simple clothes….In summers, he wore clothes of Dhaka muslin & in winters, clothes of green or yellow pashmina.

Over his costume,he wore a mantle named ‘angarakha’, along with tight pajamas & a pair of slippers.

He wore no ornaments in daily life, but on formal occasions, he wore necklaces of gold, pearls, diamonds, bracelets, etc.

The Kohinoor was worn on his left arm. His sword was studded with precious stones, and sometimes he wore pistols gifted to him by William Pitt, Governor General of EIC.

No poorly dressed man was allowed to approach him.

Dr. Murray’s Account

Dr. Murray – a British physician, who spent some time with the Maharaja in 1836, mentions that that when on tour, the Maharaja would be  accompanied by his chiefs, dancing girls, a contingent of troops and had both the Adi and Dasam Granth.

Dr. Murray also mentions that the Maharaja was very fond of inspecting his troops, particularly their equipment and dress.

Pilgrimages

The Maharaja frequently visited pilgrim spots himself.

Apart from Amritsar and Taran taran, one of his favourite spots was the Jwalaji temple at Kangra. He also visited Haridwar  many occasions.

Charities

The Maharaja gave charities to both Sikh and Hindu institutions.

The gold on the temples like Jwalaji or at Kashi Vishwanath temple, or the Golden temple, is the gold donated by the Maharaja himself.

He wanted to donate the Kohinoor at Jagannath Puri temple.

Apart from giving charities, he would ride on an elephant, distributing gold and silver on his subjects, during festivals or on some great occasion.

Temper

He was generally sweet tempered, but occasionally he was cynical.

In youth, his temper was excellent, but due to ill health, particularly after suffering a stroke in 1834, he became irritable.

Sometimes, he burst out into fits of passion, and used violence towards the objects of his rage, but there was no ferocity in his disposition, and he never committed murder even under aggravated offence.

Everybody loved and feared him at the same time.

The Sikh Empire Under Ranjit Singh

As per German traveller, Baron Charles Hugel, Ranjit Singh’s influence over the people amounted to enchantment.

His populace did not object to his association with dancing girls, as they were professionals and it did not hamper the obligations of Ranjit Singh as a ruler.

Th Govt on its part provided peace & security to people, and put an end to lawlessness.

The Sikh state allowed all people across the spectrum to contribute towards governance.

Beyond a certain limit, the govt did not provoke the people in the realization of taxes and duties.

Thus, the rulers and the ruled, both remained within bounds.

References:

– History of Sikhs, Vol V by Hari Ram Gupta

– Ranjit Singh: Lion of Punjab by W. Osborne

– Travels into Bokhara, Journey from India to Cabool, by Alexander Burnes

– Jacquemont, Journal of Travels in Northern India & Kashmir.

– Umdat-ut-Tawarikh by Sohan Lal Suri

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The article would give a vivid account of the Holi festivities which took place at Lahore Darbar during the tenure of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

This account is taken from travellers, diplomats, court-chroniclers & from other sources.

Holi

Holi is a festival of colours. A spring festival, Holi is celebrated in Feb-March and it is celebrates to bid adieu to the winters.

The festival is marked by sprinkling of colours, joyous dancing, with children leading the way with brass syringes and bucket full of coloured water.

The festivities reach its climax in the afternoon and streets echo with the shouts of “Holy Hai”.

The Lahore Darbar, under Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1799-1839) used to celebrate Holi with great pomp & grandeur.

Huge quantities of coloured powder & syringes made of gold and silver were collected. Wine and gulal were given to nobles, generals & chiefs.

The Maharaja spent 1 lakh Rs. every year on Holi celebrations.

On each Holi, the daroga of Shalimar gardens at Lahore, used to send flower twigs to the Maharaja, who then gave it to his chiefs with sweets.

The Maharaja held a grand darbar on the occasion & received nazrana. He threw gulal on his guests & sprinkled rose water on them.

Holi of 1806

In 1806, Holi was celebrated on 20/21 March.

The celebrations were marked with great rejoicing & indulgence.

The excesses of Ranjit Singh on Holi confined him for 4 months due to Gonorrhoea, as per his court biographer, Sohan Lal Suri.

Holi of 1813 & 1814

On 13 March 1813, the Maharaja enjoyed the performance of his dancing girls and played Holi with them.

On 4 March 1814, Ranjit Singh sprinkled saffron coloured rose water and lac-dye on his nobles.

Holi of 1831

All the kardars ( Commissioners) of Lahore were ordered to make preparations for Holi in January 1831.

Beli Ram was ordered to prepare all the requisites of Holi like syringes, gulal, etc and show it to the Maharaja in February 1831.

Holi of 1832

A tent was pitched at Shalimar garden, Lahore & gorgeous dancing girls gave their performance.

The Maharaja sprinkled lac-dye and coloured water on his chiefs, while the dancing girls kept their performance going from March 15-17 1832.

Holi of 1834

On 25 March 1834, all the chiefs, Nawabs and Dr. Murray attended the Holi celebrations.

Such an atmosphere of merry-making was created that the “surface of earth & heaven began to look quiet red.”

Holi of 1836

A German traveller named Baron Charles Hugel has described holi in 1836 at Lahore.

He quotes:

“thin glass balls full of singhara powder were distributed to the assembly of people and they threw these balls at each other.”

Holi of 1837

On 22 March 1837, Sir Harry Fane’s bald head was poured with colour by the Maharaja.

Another victim of that day was an Afghan diplomat whose eyes were struck by a ball of red powder from a distance.

More ammunition struck him & he ran away amidst a roar of laughter

In the afternoon of the same day, the Maharaja witnessed holi of his army & in the evening passed through the streets of Lahore riding on an elephant.

The people loudly called him a ‘bharwa’ (Pimp).

Ranjit Singh laughed at the abuse and played Holi with common people.

Holi of 1838

On 12 March 1838, the Maharja played Holi with usual pomp…The earth and sky sky became red with colour accompanied by festivities and music of his dancing girls.

Holi was played in 1839 as well and that was the last Holi of the Maharaja, as he died the same year in June 1839.

References:

1. History of Sikhs Vol V, by Hari Ram Gupta;

2. ‘Travels into Bokhara’ by Alexander Burnes

3. ‘Five Years in India’ by Sir Harry Fane

4. Travels in Kashmir & Punjab by Charles Von Hugel

5. ‘Letters from India’ by Jacquemont;

6. Umdat-ut-tawrikh by Sohan Lal Suri

The city of Multan, in SW Punjab was a great trading & manufacturing center in the 19th century.

It exported products to Bengal, Hyderabad and till Turkestan, Iran, etc.

The city imported silk of 3 kinds from Bukhara:

1) Lab-e-abi;
2) Charkhi; and
3) Kokhari

These varieties of silk were purchased at 7-12 Rs per kg from Bukhara and were sold at Multan for Rs. 10-15.

The silk was further processed in 150 workshops & it took about 16 days for processing a 3 meter silk-cloth with fine workmanship.

Multan was also noted for carpet- embroidery, tobacco, indigo, etc.

The best tobacco was available for 2 Rs. per kg, while inferior quality was available at a lesser price.

Horses from Iran, Turkey were sold here and also fruits like apples, grapes, pears, pomegranate, etc.

Leading merchants of Multan & their working capital is mentioned:

1) Madho Das Multani- Rs. 80,000

2) Sham Singh Multani- Rs. 50,000

3) Roshan Das Multani – Rs. 1.25 lakhs

4) Narain Das Multani – Rs. 40,000

Reference: History of Sikhs, Vol V, pp 116-117, Hari Ram Gupta (1991)

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The following article would detail the daily routine of Emperor Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1530).

The account has been taken from the work ‘Chronica dos reis de Bisnaga‘ (Chronicles of King of Vijaynagar), written by Domingo Paes in early 1520s.

Domingo Paes was a Portuguese traveller, who visited Vijayanagar in c. 1520 and has left a detailed and vivid description of Vijaynagar and the emperor.

His account is one of the very few descriptions of Vijaynagar by a foreign traveller

Appearance of Raya

Paes mentions following about the appearance of Raya:

The king is of medium height, has a fair complexion and a good figure. He is of cheerful disposition, honours foreigners, receives them kindly and asks all about their affairs…. “

Temper of the King

Paes describes the temperament and titles:

“He is a great ruler and a man of much justice, but prone to sudden fits of rage. His title is ‘Krishnadeva Maharaya, King of Kings, Lord of greater lands of India, Lord of three seas and land.“

Daily Routine of the King

Following is description of daily routine of the king:

“The king used to drink 3/4 pint (~425 ml) of gingelly (sesame) oil, before daybreak, and apply the said oil all over his body. He covers his loins with a small cloth and proceeds to lift great weights   made of earthenware.”

Paes describes king’s exercises with sword and wrestlers:

“Afterwards, the king takes a sword and exercises with it, till all the oil has been sweated out, and then he wrestles with one of his wrestlers.”

Paws, next mentions the king’s riding his horse and his bath:

“Afterwards, he rides on a horse and gallops about the plain in one direction and another till dawn, and this he does all before daybreak.”

“Then he goes to wash himself and a Brahmin washes him, whom he holds sacred.”

Paes, now mentions ceremonies in the palace and also about “Appaji”:

“Then he goes to the palace and performs ceremonies. From here, he goes to a porch like building and  dispatches his work with officials, who govern his cities.”

“The greatest favorite of him was his minister, Saluva Timma, who is also known as ‘Timmarasu’ and ‘Appaji.’

The Portuguese traveller now describes the scenes in the court of Raya:

“He then enters the court where many lords & captains await him. They make salaam to the king, with their eyes cast on the ground.”

“If the king desires to speak to any of them, is done through a second person & if kings asks anyone directly, he replies & goes back to his seat.”

Paes now describes the salutation, which he calls “salam”, but it’s actually a ‘namaskaram’:

“The salam, which is the greatest courtesy among them, is that they put their hands joined above their heads as high as they can.”

” Every day they go to make salam to the king.”

Domingo Paes concludes with the following words for the king:

“A perfect king, a great ruler and a man of much justice.”

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The article would look at an event named ‘Moksha‘, held every 5 years at Prayaga, under Harsha of Kannauj.

The details of the event have been taken from the writings of Xuanzang, who saw this event in c. 639 AD.

Harsha fixed the place of this event at Prayaga (Prayagraj), at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna, where according to the traditions:

“it is more advantageous to give one mite in charity, than a thousand in other places.”

This ‘Arena of Charity’ was the great sandy plain, about 8 kms on the west of confluence, where even to this day is held the most important & numerously attended Hindu religious congregation of India, called the ‘Kumbh mela‘, which is attended by more than 500 million Hindus.

At the place of the event, a square enclosure measuring 1,000 paces each side was made, with many thatched buildings in the middle, where Gold, Silver & precious stones were deposited, while garments made of silk & cotton were placed in separate enclosures.

Outside were made places for taking food. There were also erected some hundred buildings, where a thousand people might sit down for a rest.

In addition to this, Harsha had his tent pitched on the north bank of Ganga, the King of Vallabhi on the west of confluence, the King of Assam on the south side of Yamuna, while to the west of the position of Vallabhi camp were gathered all the recipients of the booty.

Proceedings of the Event

The proceedings of the assembly was begun by a military procession of the Emperor’s army and other subordinate kings.

The first day’s programme comprised of the installation of a statue of Buddha in a thatched building in the arena, followed by the distribution of costly items.

The second & third days were given to the installation of the statues of Aditya ( Sun God ) & Shiva, followed by the distribution of more costly items.

On the fourth day, the distribution of gifts was reserved for 10,000 Buddhist monks.

The next 20 days were reserved for gifts to Brahmins.

Another 10 days were given to give the gifts to alm seekers from various regions. Moreover, one month was reserved to give the gifts to the poor, orphans & destitute.

Thus passed the 64 days of giving charity.

Xuanzang observes:

“By this time the accumulation of 5 years of wealth was exhausted, except for maintenance of the army and of maintaining the royal estates, nothing remained.“

Besides these, the king freely gave away his gems, bracelets & other precious jewels to the poor without battling an eyelid.

It is reported that once a Brahmin asked for a shawl from Harsha, who had nothing left to give,  so he had to borrow a shawl from his sister.

Xuanzang saw this event in 639 AD.

Since this was a quinquennial event, it must have been held before Xuanzang came to India.

Harsha died in 647 AD. We don’t have any reports of a king doing such charity, on such a scale again.

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In 7th century, a great Buddhist pilgrim and scholar from China, Xuanzang came to India.

The article would give a glimpse of what Xuanzang saw w.r.t funerary customs followed by the Indians in the 7th century.

1) When a person died, his family members used to raise lamentable cries and weep.

The family members loosened their hair, and beat their chests repeatedly ( both men & women).

There was no fixed dress for mourning, neither any fixed hour.

2) Xuanzang mentions three ways of paying last tributes to the dead:

a) Via Cremation;

b) Via Water, the body was immersed into a river…The way followed by ascetics;

c) Via Desertion – the body was thrown into a forest, & was devoured by wild beasts.

3) When a king died, his successor was first appointed, who used to act on every minor details for the cremation of the dead body.

“Whilst living they give (their rulers) titles according to their character (virtue); when dead there are no posthumous titles.”

4) No eating was allowed in the house where a death had taken place.

No mention of days of mourning, but perhaps it was 13 days.

No death anniversaries were observed .

After the funeral, the people used to bathe outside the town and then enter their houses.

5) Xuanzang mentions a peculiar custom of Indians:

The old & infirm who were close to death, had their last meal prepared by family members, & to the sound of music, they boarded a boat.

The boat was propelled towards the midst of Ganga river and the person would drown himself.

Xuanzang mentions that the above funerary custom was done to make sure that the person could “secure a birth among the Devas.”

6) A priest was not allowed to cry over the death of any of his parents:

” When a parent of a priest dies they recite their prayers, recounting their obligations to them; reflecting on the past, they carefully attend to them now dead….”

The above procedure followed by the priest was expected “to increase the mysterious character of their religious merit.”

Many of the funerary customs are still practiced by the Hindus.

However, observing death anniversary is perhaps a new addition to the custom.

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The article would describe ways and means to achive invisibility as per Arthashastra, Book 14, Chapter 3

1) Invisibile Using Executed Criminal’s Skull

One must fast for 3 days before the ‘Star of ‘Pusya’ (Pushya Nakshatra).

Take the skull of an executed criminal, fill it will soil & barley seeds & water it with goat milk.

Putting the garland from sprout, would make one invisible.

2) Invisible Using Animal Head

Fast for 3 days.

On the night of Pushya Nakshatra, prepare a round-headed pin from the wood of ‘punnaga’ tree.

Take the skull of an animal which roams at night and put that skull in the procreating organ of a dead woman, before burning it.

Bury the ashes, and take it out on the night of Pushya Nakshatra.

Anoint your eyes with the ashes, and one can walk invisible.

3) Invisible Using Owl / Dog’s Eye

Fast for 3 nights before Pushya Nakshatra.

Pull out the left & right eye of a dog, an owl and a vaguli (?).

Reduce them into powder, apply it in one’s own eyes and walk invisible.

4) Invisible Using Corpse of a Brahmin

Fast for 3 days before Pushya Nakshatra, form a sack from the garment of a deceased man.

Add the ashes of a Brahmin, who did fire worship and put it on one’s back.

The above sack, with a Brahmin’s ashes, would make one invisible.

5) Invisible Using Discarded Snake-skin

Full the discarded skin of a snake,  with powder of bones or fat of a cow.

Put this on the back of a cattle and render them invisible.

6) Invisible Using Skin of a Pracalāka bird

Fill the discarded skin of Pracālaka bird, with ashes of a man dead  from snake-bite.

Apply it on a cattle to make them invisible.

7) Invisibility Using tail & dung of an Owl & a Vaguli

Fill the discarded skin of a snake and fill it with powder of the bone of knee-joint, and mix it with that of tail and dung of an Owl and a Vaguli (?).

Applying the paste on birds, can make them invisible.

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The article would details ways and means of various tests which ministers had to go through in Mauryan era, as per Arthashastra.

Overview

The machinery of administration has been modelled by Kautilya w.r.t 7 constituent elements of the State in the Theory of Hindu polity:

These seven elements are as under:

1) The Sovereign (Swami);

2) Ministers (amatya);

3) Territory;

4) Fortifications;

5) Finance (Kosa);

6) Military;

7) Alliances (mitrani).

Kautilya maintains that a king must have a regular Council of Ministers ( Mantri Parishad).

The followers of Manu fix the number of ministers at 12, The followers of Brahaspati at 16, followers of Shukracharya at 20.

However, Kautilya maintains that the number of ministers should be as required.

Kautilya is evidently for a large council.

He cites with approval Indra’s council of 1000 Rishis. Though of only two eyes, Indra is known as one with thousand eyes, for these Rishis are his eyes.

The importance of the rank of the Chief Minister or ‘Maha-Amatya’ is indicated by the payment of 48,000 panas per annum.

The salary attached to a ‘Mantri’ or Minister was a only 12,000 panas per annum.

There was a constitutional importance attached to the posts of chief minister & Purohita.

It appears that king himself appointed ‘Amatyas’ who will serve him as Ministers in the Council Chamber.

These appointments were made upon the basis of both mental & moral qualifications out of candidates who were considered eligible for appointment as ‘Amatyas’.

Tests for Appointments:

1) In the first test, a priest is dismissed & is set upon ‘Amatyas’ whom he incites to rebel against the king on the ground that the king  is unrighteous (Adharmik).

2) In the second test, a general is dismissed for supposed embezzlement.

He is then set upon on the  ‘Amatyas’ and tries to bribe them for conspiring to murder the king.

3) For the third test, a woman spy in the guise of an ascetic (sadhavi) is employed to corrupt the ‘Amatyas’, telling each in turn that the queen is in love with him.

4) For the fourth test, ministers are tempted to enter into a plot against king’s life.

This is the last test which is to employed to test the Amatyas.

Rewards & Appointments

1) The rule of appointment is that those ministers who have stood the religious test, should be appointed as judges, civil ( Dharmasthiya) & criminal ( Kantak- sodhana).

2) ‘Amatyas’ who proved themselves above bribery should be appointed as Heads of Department, dealing with revenue & stores.

3) ‘Amatyas’ who have shown themselves proofs against temptations of the flesh, would be the best officers to take charge of departments concerning women.

They are to be placed in charge of king’s harem both in the capital & also in outlaying parts.

4) The officers who would prove themselves to be proof against fear & would not by any means be coerced in to disloyalty to the king, were appointed as king’s bodyguard (Asanna – karyeshu).

5) The persons qualified to be ‘Amatyas’ but not tested or tried, will be employed in the general departments (samanya-adhikarna).

“Administration cannot be work of one man, just as one wheel cannot drive a car” ( Sahayasadhyam rajatvam chakramekam na vartate).

Thus, the king must carry on the administration with the help of his agents & ministers.

Further reference and Studies:

1)  Arthashastra by Kautilya’, Translation by R. Shamasastry;

2) ‘Chandragupta Maurya and His Times’ by Dr. R.K. Mookerji

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The following article would name some of the plants & herbs mentioned in the various portions of Atharvaveda.

These herbs have been described helpful in fighting various ailments.

1)  Aghadvistā: Mentioned in AV IV.37.6.

The other name of this plant is Devajātā. Helpful in destruction of all kinds orf ‘evil-eye’.

2) Abhirouda: Mentioned in AV VII. 38.2.

It s an ‘Asuri medicine’, used by Indra to subjugated other Gods.

Used by wives to control their husbands.

3) Asrāvabhesaja: Mentioned in AV.
VI.44.2.

Used as a blood-thinner. This herb is beneficial in treating wounds, bruises.

4) Asikini: Mentioned in AV.I.23.3
It is used for removing large scars from the body.

5) Kanakanaka: Mentioned in AV X.4.22.

Useful against snake-bite.

6) Kandāvisa: A tuber found in the Himalayas. Used to nullify the effects of poisoning.

Mentioned in AV X.4.22.

7) Kustha: Mentioned in AV. 4.1-10.

This herb is found in the Himalayas.

It is applied to treat rheumatism, TB, shortness of breath, eye diseases, headache & dysentery.

8) Ksetriyanāsani: Mentioned on AV II.8.1-5

Used to cure hereditary diseases. Also against heart-burn.

9) Cipudru: In AV VI. 127.1-3, ‘Cipudru’ is mentioned.

It is a pine tree . Used as a medicine for blood bile, heroes and other diseases.

10) Talāsā: Mentioned in AV VI.15.3

This herb is worn as a wrist-band. Uses in anorexia, dysentery, indigestion & TB.

11) Trstā, Trstikā: Mentioned on AV VII. 113.1-2.

Sayāna calls it ‘Banāparni’. It is a toxic plants & used to kill rats, lizards, cockroaches, etc.

12) Dasabrksa: Mentioned in AV II.9.1.

Sayāna mentions 10 trees as ‘Dasabrksa’.

The fruit of this tree is used in arthritis.

13) Pinga: Mentioned in AV VIII.6.24.

Used as contraceptive and also prevents miscarriages.

14) Pippali: Mentioned in AV VI.109-3.

Fed to alleviate rheumatism.

Used as an aphrodisiac, destroyer of bad breath, cough, fever and dysentery.

15) Punarnavā: Mentioned in AV VIII.7.8.

This tree dried up in summers & turned green during the rainy season, hence the name.

Used in inflammation, poison, phlegm & stomach ailments.

Also used as an antidote to scorpion-poisoning.

16) Paidva: It is mentioned in AV X.4.10. Used as an antidote to snake-bite.

17) Preni: Mentioned in AV VI.89.1.

This is a ‘Good Luck’ medicine & helps to increase mutual love.

18) Bhangā: Mentioned in AV IX.6.15.

Dandruff is removed by applying a paste of Bhangā on the head.

19) Madhula: Mentioned on AV VII.56.2.

Used against snake-bite and as a mosquito repellent.

20) Rohani: Used to repair broken bones. Mentioned in AV IV.12.1-7.

21) Vacā: Used in treatment of abdominal pains in children, epilepsy, insanity and phlegm.

Mentioned in AV I.44.10

There are still many plants & herbs mentioned in AV.

The names of these plants were quite common in the Vedic age.

Many names, then known, are lost to us in the present times, though we know about ‘Pinga’ which is black mustard, & ‘Cipudru’, which is the name of pine tree.

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The Mauryan empire (322-185 BCE) was the largest empire of India.

It not only unified India politically, but provided greatest impetus for trade, art & interactions with foreign nations.

At its height in 232 BCE, it’s area was 5 million sq kms…the largest empire of India in terms of area.

But like all empires go, this too fell.

Historians have postulated on several reasons which led to the decline of Mauryans.

There is no one particular reason as to why the Mauryan empire fell….There are complex factors at work, which all came together to end this empire.

Let’s look at some reasons for the downfall of the Mauryan empire:

1. Centralization

The Mauryan bureaucracy was highly centralized, where the king was involved in almost all matters of the state.

It needed a strong central authority (king) which kept the machine running.

However, any change in the center, in quick succession, led to issues.

The genius of Chandragupta, Bindusara, Ashoka, kept the empire going, in its first 90 years (322-232 BCE).

The average rule of the first 3 Mauryan emperors, gives 30 years, while the last 5 emperors in 47 years after the the death of Ashoka, gives an average of a paltry 9 years.

A quick succession in the center, would lead to change of officials, & in effect, would lead to change of loyalties.

This led to many problems, as governors of outlying areas would think of going independent, rather than stick to something which was unstable.

2. Economy

The economy of the times was money-based and it seems that it was under considerable pressure.

Cracks would have been visible in Ashoka’s reign & it became bigger during the rule of his successors.

It was becoming more and more difficult to maintain a vast army and to pay the salaries of the officials and soldiers.

Dr. D.D. Kosambi in his works, has proved that there was debasement of coins after the rule of Ashoka.

It is quite possible that because the outlying areas broke away, Mauryans has lost control of metal, or that the normal channels of revenue were getting more difficult to acquire.

3. Ashokan Policies

Many historians have accused Ashoka, his non-violence and his conversion to Buddhism as the root cause of Mauryan decline.

It has been suggested that Ashokan pacifism led to invasions & conditions which led to Mauryan downfall.

Let’s look it little closely.

After Kalinga war, Ashoka concentrated on ‘dhamma-vijaya’, & war as a state policy was abandoned.

But was it just because Ashoka felt remorse seeing the carnage at Kalinga ?

In his RE-13 he warns forest tribes that “they would all be killed”, if they don’t listen to him.

It seems that the prevailing political conditions made Ashoka stop the wars of conquest.

Simply, there were no more lands to conquer !

All of the region, from mountains of Afghanistan to south, acknowledged the Mauryan emperor.

Additionally, his inscriptions does not indicate that the army was disbanded.

It seems the army was increased to about a million men.

His adherence to non-violence raises some questions, as he did not end the capital punishment in his empire, and brutally suppressed the Jains, nor did he completely let go of his meat-eating habit.

4. Brahmin Revolt

There is also a point of view in the academia that because of increased patronage to Buddhism by Ashoka and his successors, the Brahmins revolted, leading to the assassination of the last Mauryan emperor.

Only 2 questions should be asked for this above view:

a) Why the Brahmins didn’t revolt immediately after Ashoka’s death & wait 40+ years for a revolt ?

b) Why Mauryan emperors’ kept Brahmin ministers & Brahmin Senapati in their army, if Brahmins were revolting ?

It seems that the real motive of Pushyamitra Sunga to get rid of his master, could be personal ambition.

At his position, he could clearly see that the king was weak, and he had the control of the whole of army (danda), whose support he could rely on, if situation arose.

5. Climatic Factors

The Jain texts speak of a ’12 year Famine’, which lead to the exodus of Jain community from Magadha to south, under Bhadrabahu.

Now, if this is an indication, the causes of famine of this magnitude is not hard to fathom.

Mauryans had to clear vast swathes of forests in order to found new settlements

The cutting down of the forests, led to issues, because even if the rains came there would be no barriers to soil-binding, & hence in addition to famine, the incoming floods would devastated an area.

Additionally, a long period of famine, would lead to people migrate to other places, and it would most importantly, lead to less revenue collection, which would further have strained the royal treasury.

The Mauryan dynasty fell in c. 185 BCE, when the last emperor of Mauryans, Brihidartha, was assassinated by his Commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga.

References & Further Study:

— The Mauryan Polity, K.P. Jayaswal (1973)

— Ashoka and Decline of Mauryans, by Romila Thapar (1997)

— Main Trends in Histrography of Mauryan Empire since Independence, Shankar Goel (1997)

— Indian Numismatics by D.D. Kosambi (1981)

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