{"id":31923,"date":"2020-09-30T21:22:00","date_gmt":"2020-10-01T01:22:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/?p=31923"},"modified":"2022-05-17T21:15:28","modified_gmt":"2022-05-18T01:15:28","slug":"euler-formula","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/","title":{"rendered":"Euler&#8217;s Formula: A Complete Guide"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>In the world of complex numbers, as we integrate trigonometric expressions, we will likely encounter the so-called <strong>Euler\u2019s formula<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Named after the legendary mathematician <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leonhard_Euler\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Leonhard Euler<\/a>, this powerful equation deserves a closer examination \u2014 in order for us to use it to its full potential.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>We will take a look at how Euler&#8217;s formula allows us to express complex numbers as <strong>exponentials<\/strong>, and explore the different ways it can be established with relative ease.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In addition, we will also consider its several <strong>applications<\/strong> such as the particular case of Euler&#8217;s identity, the exponential form of complex numbers, alternate definitions of key functions, and alternate proofs of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/De_Moivre%27s_formula\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">de Moivre\u2019s theorem<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_trigonometric_identities#Angle_sum_and_difference_identities\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">trigonometric additive identities<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"colorbox khaki\">\n<p class=\"colorbox-title\">Note<\/p>\n<p>This Euler&#8217;s formula is to be distinguished from other Euler&#8217;s formulas, such as the one for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Euler_characteristic#Polyhedra\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>convex polyhedra<\/strong><\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide mediatext\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-media-text alignwide is-stacked-on-mobile is-vertically-aligned-center\" style=\"grid-template-columns:27% auto\"><figure class=\"wp-block-media-text__media\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"400\" height=\"518\" src=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/Eulers-Formula-Guide-Ebook-Cover.png\" alt=\"Ebook cover of The Complete Guide to Euler&#039;s Formula\" class=\"wp-image-33344 size-full\" title=\"\"><\/figure><div class=\"wp-block-media-text__content\">\n<p style=\"line-height: 1.35em; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 800; text-align: center;\">Prefer the PDF version instead?<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">Get our complete, 22-page guide on Euler&#8217;s formula\u2014in offline, printable <strong>PDF format<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<span class=\"tve-leads-two-step-trigger tl-2step-trigger-33343\"><div class=\"wp-block-button aligncenter\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-text-color has-background\" href=\"#\" style=\"background-color:#007ed8;color:#fcfcfc;border-radius:1px;\">Yes. That&#8217;d be great.<\/a><\/div><\/span>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<p style=\"padding-top: 0; margin-top: 0;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"padding-top: 0;\" src=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/Euler-formula-diagram.png\" alt=\"Diagram illustrating Euler&#039;s formula for complex numbers\" width=\"900\" height=\"572\" title=\"\"><\/p>\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_1 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title ez-toc-toggle\" style=\"cursor:pointer\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #000000;color:#000000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #000000;color:#000000\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Eulers_Formula_Explained_Introduction_Interpretation_and_Examples\">Euler&#8217;s Formula Explained: Introduction, Interpretation and Examples<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Derivations\">Derivations<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Derivation_1_Power_Series\">Derivation 1: Power Series<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Derivation_2_Calculus\">Derivation 2: Calculus<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Derivation_3_Polar_Coordinates\">Derivation 3: Polar Coordinates<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Applications\">Applications<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Eulers_Identity\">Euler&#8217;s Identity<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Complex_Numbers_in_Exponential_Form\">Complex Numbers in Exponential Form<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Alternate_Definitions_of_Key_Functions\">Alternate Definitions of Key Functions<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-4' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Complex_Exponential_Function\">Complex Exponential Function<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Trigonometric_Functions\">Trigonometric Functions<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Hyperbolic_Functions\">Hyperbolic Functions<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Complex_Logarithm_and_General_Complex_Exponential\">Complex Logarithm and General Complex Exponential<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Alternate_Proofs_of_De_Moivres_Theorem_and_Trigonometric_Additive_Identities\">Alternate Proofs of De Moivre\u2019s Theorem and Trigonometric Additive Identities<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-15\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-16\" href=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/euler-formula\/#Sources\">Sources<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Eulers_Formula_Explained_Introduction_Interpretation_and_Examples\"><\/span>Euler&#8217;s Formula Explained: Introduction, Interpretation and Examples<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>So what exactly is <strong>Euler&#8217;s formula<\/strong>? In a nutshell, it is the theorem that states that<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$e^{ix} = \\cos x + i \\sin x$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>where:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>$x$ is a <strong>real number<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>$e$ is the <a href=\"\/hub\/higher-math\/math-symbols\/#Key_Mathematical_Numbers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>base of the natural logarithm<\/strong><\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>$i$ is the <a href=\"\/hub\/higher-math\/math-symbols\/#Key_Mathematical_Numbers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>imaginary unit<\/strong><\/a> (i.e., square root of $-1$).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"colorbox khaki\">\n<p class=\"colorbox-title\">Note<\/p>\n<p>In this formula, the right-hand side is sometimes abbreviated as $\\operatorname{cis}{x}$, though the left-hand expression $e^{ix}$ is usually preferred over the $\\operatorname{cis}$ notation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Euler\u2019s formula establishes the fundamental relationship between <a href=\"\/hub\/higher-math\/math-symbols\/geometry-trigonometry-symbols\/#Trigonometric_Functions\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>trigonometric functions<\/strong><\/a> and <strong>exponential functions<\/strong>. Geometrically, it can be thought of as a way of bridging two representations of the same unit complex number in the complex plane.<\/p>\n<p>Let&#8217;s take a look at some of the <strong>key values<\/strong> of Euler&#8217;s formula, and see how they correspond to points in the trigonometric\/unit circle:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>For $x=0$, we have $e^{0} = \\cos 0+ i \\sin 0$, which gives $1 = 1$. So far so good: we know that an angle of $0$ on the trigonometric circle is $1$ on the real axis, and this is what we get here.<\/li>\n<li>For $x=1$, we have $e^{i}=\\cos 1 + i \\sin 1$. This result suggests that $e^i$ is precisely the point on the unit circle whose angle is <strong>1 radian<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>For $x = \\frac{\\pi}{2}$, we have $e^{i\\frac{\\pi}{2}} = \\cos \\frac{\\pi}{2} + i \\sin \\frac{\\pi}{2} = i$. This result is useful in some calculations related to physics.<\/li>\n<li>For $x = \\pi$, we have $e^{i\\pi} = \\cos \\pi + i \\sin \\pi $, which means that $e^{i\\pi} = -1$. This result is equivalent to the famous <a href=\"#Euler%E2%80%99s_Identity\"><strong>Euler&#8217;s identity<\/strong><\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>For $x = 2\\pi$, we have $e^{i (2\\pi)} = \\cos 2\\pi + i \\sin 2\\pi$, which means that $e^{i (2\\pi)} = 1$, same as with $x = 0$.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>A key to understanding Euler&#8217;s formula lies in rewriting the formula as follows: \\[ (e^i)^x = \\cos x + i \\sin x \\] where:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The right-hand expression can be thought of as the <strong>unit complex number<\/strong> with angle $x$.<\/li>\n<li>The left-hand expression can be thought of as the <strong>1-radian unit complex number<\/strong> raised to $x$.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>And since raising a unit complex number to a power can be thought of as <strong>repeated multiplications<\/strong> (i.e., adding up angles in this case), Euler&#8217;s formula can be construed as two different ways of running around the unit circle to arrive at the same point.<\/p>\n<div><iframe class=\"iframe\" src=\"https:\/\/www.desmos.com\/calculator\/v1nugr08y5?embed\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Derivations\"><\/span>Derivations<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Euler&#8217;s formula can be established in at least three ways. The first derivation is based on <strong>power series<\/strong>, where the exponential, sine and cosine functions are expanded as power series to conclude that the formula indeed holds.<\/p>\n<p>The second derivation of Euler&#8217;s formula is based on <strong>calculus<\/strong>, in which both sides of the equation are treated as functions and differentiated accordingly. This then leads to the identification of a common property \u2014 one which can be exploited to show that both functions are indeed equal.<\/p>\n<p>Yet another derivation of Euler&#8217;s formula involves the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polar_coordinate_system#Complex_numbers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>polar coordinates<\/strong><\/a> in the complex plane, through which the values of $r$ and $\\theta$ are subsequently found. In fact, you might be able to guess what these values are \u2014 just by looking at the formula itself!<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Derivation_1_Power_Series\"><\/span>Derivation 1: Power Series<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>One of the most intuitive derivations of Euler&#8217;s formula involves the use of <strong>power series<\/strong>. It consists in expanding the power series of exponential, sine and cosine \u2014 to finally conclude that the equality holds.<\/p>\n<p>As a caveat, this approach assumes that the power series expansions of $\\sin z$, $\\cos z$, and $e^z$ are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Absolute_convergence\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>absolutely convergent<\/strong><\/a> everywhere (e.g.,\u00a0 that they hold for all complex numbers $z$). However, it also has the advantage of showing that Euler&#8217;s formula holds for all complex numbers $z$ as well.<\/p>\n<p>For a complex variable $z$, the <strong>power series expansion<\/strong> of $e^z$ is \\[ e^z = 1 + \\frac{z}{1!} + \\frac{z^2}{2!} + \\frac{z^3}{3!} + \\frac{z^4}{4!} + \\cdots \\] Now, let us take $z$ to be $ix$ (where $x$ is an <a href=\"\/math-glossary\/#arbitrary\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">arbitrary<\/a> complex number). As $z$ gets raised to increasing powers, $i$ also gets raised to increasing powers. The <strong>first eight powers<\/strong> of $i$ look like this: \\begin{align*} i^0 &amp; = 1 &amp; i^4 &amp; = i^2 \\cdot i^2 = 1 \\\\ i^1 &amp; = i &amp; i^5 &amp; = i \\cdot i^4 = i \\\\ i^2 &amp; = -1 \\quad \\text{(by the definition of $i$)} &amp; i^6 &amp; = i \\cdot i^5 = -1 \\\\ i^3 &amp; = i \\cdot i^2 = -i &amp; i^7 &amp; = i \\cdot i^6 = -i \\end{align*} (notice the <strong>cyclicality<\/strong> of the powers of $i$: $1$, $i$, $-1$, $-i$. We&#8217;ll be using these powers shortly.)<\/p>\n<p>With $z = ix$, the expansion of $e^z$ becomes: \\[ e^{ix} = 1 + ix + \\frac{(ix)^2}{2!} + \\frac{(ix)^3}{3!} + \\frac{(ix)^4}{4!} + \\cdots \\] Extracting the powers of $i$, we get: \\[ e^{ix} = 1 + ix-\\frac{x^2}{2!}-\\frac{i x^3}{3!} + \\frac{x^4}{4!} + \\frac{i x^5}{5!}-\\frac{x^6}{6!}-\\frac{i x^7}{7!} + \\frac{x^8}{8!} + \\cdots \\] And since the power series expansion of $e^z$ is absolutely convergent, we can rearrange its terms without altering its value. Grouping the <strong>real<\/strong> and <strong>imaginary terms<\/strong> together then yields: \\[ e^{ix} = \\left( 1-\\frac{x^2}{2!} + \\frac{x^4}{4!}-\\frac{x^6}{6!} + \\frac{x^8}{8!}-\\cdots \\right) + i \\left( x-\\frac{x^3}{3!} + \\frac{x^5}{5!}-\\frac{x^7}{7!} + \\cdots \\right) \\] Now, let\u2019s take a detour and look at the power series of <strong>sine<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>cosine<\/strong>. The power series of $\\cos{x}$ is \\[ \\cos x = 1-\\frac{x^2}{2!} + \\frac{x^4}{4!}-\\frac{x^6}{6!} + \\frac{x^8}{8!}-\\cdots \\] And for $\\sin{x}$, it is \\[ \\sin x = x-\\frac{x^3}{3!} + \\frac{x^5}{5!}-\\frac{x^7}{7!} + \\cdots \\] In other words, the last equation we had is precisely \\[ e^{ix} = \\cos x + i \\sin x \\] which is the statement of Euler&#8217;s formula that we were looking for.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Derivation_2_Calculus\"><\/span>Derivation 2: Calculus<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Another neat way to establish Euler&#8217;s formula is to consider both $e^{ix}$ and $\\cos x + i \\sin x$ as <strong>functions<\/strong> of $x$, before differentiating them to find some common property about them.<\/p>\n<p>For that to happen though, one must assume that the functions $e^z$, $\\cos x$ and $\\sin x$ are defined and <strong>differentiable<\/strong> for all real numbers $x$ and complex numbers $z$. By assuming that these functions are differentiable for all complex numbers, it is also possible to show that Euler&#8217;s formula holds for all complex numbers as well.<\/p>\n<p>First, let $f_1(x)$ and $f_2(x)$ be $e^{ix}$ and $\\cos x + i \\sin x$, respectively. <strong>Differentiating<\/strong> $f_1$ via <a href=\"\/chain-rule-derivative\/#Chain_Rule_%E2%80%94_A_Review\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">chain rule<\/a> then yields: \\[ f_{1}'(x) = i e^{ix} = i f_1(x) \\] Similarly, differentiating $f_2$ also yields: \\[ f_{2}'(x) = -\\sin x + i \\cos x = i f_2(x) \\] In other words, both functions satisfy the differential equation $f'(x) = i f(x)$. Now, consider the function $\\frac{f_1}{f_2}$, which is <a href=\"\/math-glossary\/#welldefined\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">well-defined<\/a> for all $x$ (since $f_2(x) = \\cos x + i\\sin x$ corresponds to points on the unit circle, which are never zero). With that settled, using the <strong>quotient rule<\/strong> on this function then yields: \\begin{align*} \\left(\\frac{f_{1}}{f_2}\\right)'(x) &amp; = \\frac{f_1\u2019(x) f_2(x)-f_1(x) f_2\u2019(x)}{[f_2(x)]^2} \\\\ &amp; = \\frac{i f_1(x) f_2(x)-f_1(x) i f_2(x)}{[f_2(x)]^2} \\\\ &amp; = 0 \\end{align*} And since the derivative here is $0$, this implies that the function $\\frac{f_1}{f_2}$ must have been a <strong>constant<\/strong> to begin with. What is the value of this constant? Let&#8217;s figure it out by plugging in $x=0$ into the function: \\[ \\left(\\frac{f_1}{f_2}\\right)(0) = \\frac{e^{i0}}{\\cos 0 + i \\sin 0} = 1\u00a0 \\] In other words, we must have that for all $x$: \\[ \\left(\\frac{f_1}{f_2}\\right)(x) = \\frac{e^{ix}}{\\cos x + i \\sin x} = 1\u00a0 \\] which, after moving $\\cos x + i \\sin x$ to the right, becomes the famous formula we&#8217;ve been looking for.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Derivation_3_Polar_Coordinates\"><\/span>Derivation 3: Polar Coordinates<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Yet another ingenious proof of Euler&#8217;s formula involves treating exponentials as numbers, or more specifically, as complex numbers under <strong>polar coordinates<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, we already know that all non-zero complex numbers can be expressed in <strong>polar coordinates<\/strong> in a unique way. In particular, any number of the form $e^{ix}$ (with real $x$), which is non-zero, can be expressed as: \\[ e^{ix} = r(\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta) \\] where $\\theta$ is its <strong>principal angle<\/strong> from the positive real axis (with, say, $0 \\le \\theta &lt; 2 \\pi$), and $r$ is its <strong>radius<\/strong> (with $r&gt;0$). We make no assumption about the values of $r$ and $\\theta$, except the fact that they are functions of $x$ (which may or may not contain $x$ as variable). They will be determined in the course of the proof.<\/p>\n<p>(However, what we do know is that when $x=0$, the left-hand side is $1$, which implies that $r$ and $\\theta$ satisfy the <strong>initial conditions<\/strong> of $r(0)=1$ and $\\theta(0)=0$, respectively.)<\/p>\n<p>For what it&#8217;s worth, we&#8217;ll begin by <strong>differentiating<\/strong> both sides of the equation. By the definition of exponential, differentiating the left side of the equation with respect to $x$ yields $i e^{ix}$. After differentiating the right side of the equation, the equation then becomes: \\[ i e^{ix} = \\frac{dr}{dx}(\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta) + r(- \\sin \\theta + i \\cos \\theta) \\frac{d \\theta}{dx} \\] We&#8217;re looking for an expression that is uniquely in terms of $r$ and $\\theta$. To get rid of $e^{ix}$, we substitute back $r(\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta)$ for $e^{ix}$ to get:<span style=\"font-size: inherit;\"> \\[ i r(\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta) = (\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta) \\frac{dr}{dx} + r(- \\sin \\theta + i \\cos \\theta) \\frac{d \\theta}{dx} \\] Once there, distributing the $i$ on the left-hand side then yields: \\[ r(i \\cos \\theta-\\sin \\theta) = (\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta) \\frac{dr}{dx} + r(- \\sin \\theta + i \\cos \\theta) \\frac{d \\theta}{dx} \\] Equating the <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: inherit;\">imaginary<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: inherit;\"> and <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: inherit;\">real parts<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: inherit;\">, respectively, we get: \\[ ir\\cos \\theta = i \\sin \\theta \\frac{dr}{dx} + i r\\cos \\theta \\frac{d \\theta}{dx} \\] and \\[ -r \\sin \\theta = \\cos \\theta \\frac{dr}{dx}-r\\sin \\theta \\frac{d \\theta}{dx} \\] What we have here is a <\/span><strong style=\"font-size: inherit;\">system<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: inherit;\"> of two equations and two unknowns, where $dr\/dx$ and $d\\theta\/dx$ are the variables. We can solve it in a few steps. First, by assigning $\\alpha$ to $dr\/dx$ and $\\beta$ to $d\\theta\/dx$, we get: \\begin{align} r \\cos \\theta &amp; = (\\sin \\theta) \\alpha + (r \\cos \\theta) \\beta\u00a0 \\tag{I} \\\\\u00a0 -r \\sin \\theta &amp; = (\\cos \\theta) \\alpha-(r \\sin \\theta) \\beta \\tag{II} \\end{align} Second, by multiplying (I) by $\\cos \\theta$ and (II) by $\\sin \\theta$, we get: \\begin{align} r \\cos^2 \\theta &amp; = (\\sin \\theta \\cos \\theta) \\alpha + (r \\cos^2 \\theta) \\beta \\tag{III}\\\\\u00a0 -r \\sin^2 \\theta &amp; = (\\sin \\theta \\cos \\theta) \\alpha-(r \\sin^2 \\theta) \\beta \\tag{IV} \\end{align} The purpose of these operations is to eliminate $\\alpha$ by doing (III) \u2013 (IV), and when we do that, we get: \\[ r(\\cos^2 \\theta + \\sin^2 \\theta) = r(\\cos^2 \\theta + \\sin^2 \\theta) \\beta \\] Since $\\cos^2 \\theta + \\sin^2 \\theta = 1$, a simpler equation emerges: \\[ r = r \\beta \\] And since $r &gt; 0$ for all $x$, this implies that $\\beta$ \u2014 which we had set to be $d\\theta\/dx$ \u2014 is equal to $1$.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Once there, substituting this result back into (I) and (II) and doing some cancelling, we get: \\begin{align*} 0 &amp; = (\\sin \\theta) \\alpha \\\\ 0 &amp; = (\\cos \\theta) \\alpha \\end{align*} which implies that $\\alpha$ \u2014 which we have set to be $\\frac{dr}{dx}$ \u2014 must be equal to $0$.<\/p>\n<p>From the fact that $dr\/dx = 0$, we can deduce that $r$ must be a <strong>constant<\/strong>. Similarly, from the fact that $d \\theta \/dx = 1$, we can deduce that $\\theta = x + C$ for some constant $C$.<\/p>\n<p>However, since $r$ satisfies the <strong>initial condition<\/strong> $r(0)=1$, we must have that $r=1$. Similarly, because $\\theta$ satisfies the initial condition $\\theta(0)=0$, we must have that $C=0$. That is, $\\theta = x$.<\/p>\n<p>With $r$ and $\\theta$ now identified, we can then plug them into the original equation and get: \\begin{align*} e^{ix} &amp; = r(\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta) \\\\ &amp; = \\cos x + i \\sin x \\end{align*} which, as expected, is exactly the statement of Euler&#8217;s formula for real numbers $x$.<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Applications\"><\/span>Applications<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Being one of the most important equations in mathematics, Euler&#8217;s formula certainly has its fair share of interesting <strong>applications<\/strong> in different topics. These include, among others:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The famous <strong>Euler&#8217;s identity<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>The <strong>exponential form<\/strong> of complex numbers<\/li>\n<li>Alternate definitions of <strong>trigonometric<\/strong> and <strong>hyperbolic functions<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Generalization of <strong>exponential<\/strong> and <strong>logarithmic functions<\/strong> to complex numbers<\/li>\n<li>Alternate proofs of <strong>de Moivre&#8217;s theorem<\/strong> and <strong>trigonometric additive identities<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Eulers_Identity\"><\/span>Euler&#8217;s Identity<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Euler&#8217;s identity is often considered to be the most beautiful equation in mathematics. It is written as<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$e^{i \\pi} + 1 = 0$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>where it showcases five of the most important <a href=\"\/hub\/higher-math\/math-symbols\/#Key_Mathematical_Numbers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>constants<\/strong><\/a> in mathematics. These are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The <strong>additive identity<\/strong> $0$<\/li>\n<li>The <strong>unity<\/strong> $1$<\/li>\n<li>The <strong>Pi constant<\/strong> $\\pi$ (ratio of a circle&#8217;s circumference to its diameter)<\/li>\n<li>The <strong>base of natural logarithm<\/strong> $e$<\/li>\n<li>The <strong>imaginary unit<\/strong> $i$<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Among these, three <strong>types of numbers<\/strong> are represented: integers, irrational numbers and imaginary numbers. Three of the basic <strong>mathematical operations<\/strong> are also represented: addition, multiplication and exponentiation.<\/p>\n<p>We obtain Euler\u2019s identity by starting with Euler&#8217;s formula \\[ e^{ix} = \\cos x + i \\sin x \\] and by setting $x = \\pi$ and sending the subsequent $-1$ to the left-hand side. The intermediate form \\[ e^{i \\pi} = -1 \\] is common in the context of <strong>trigonometric unit circle<\/strong> in the complex plane: it corresponds to the point on the unit circle whose angle with respect to the positive real axis is $\\pi$.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Complex_Numbers_in_Exponential_Form\"><\/span>Complex Numbers in Exponential Form<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>At this point, we already know that a complex number $z$ can be expressed in <strong>Cartesian coordinates<\/strong> as $x + iy$, where $x$ and $y$ are respectively the real part and the imaginary part of $z$.<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, the same complex number can also be expressed in <strong>polar coordinates<\/strong> as $r(\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta)$, where $r$ is the magnitude of its distance to the origin, and $\\theta$ is its angle with respect to the positive real axis.<\/p>\n<p>But it does not end there: thanks to Euler&#8217;s formula, every complex number can now be expressed as a <strong>complex exponential<\/strong>\u00a0as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$z = r(\\cos \\theta + i \\sin \\theta) = r e^{i \\theta}$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>where $r$ and $\\theta$ are the same numbers as before.<\/p>\n<p>To go from $(x, y)$ to $(r, \\theta)$, we use the formulas \\begin{align*} r &amp; = \\sqrt{x^2 + y^2} \\\\[4px] \\theta &amp; = \\operatorname{atan2}(y, x) \\end{align*} (where $\\operatorname{atan2}(y, x)$ is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atan2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>two-argument arctangent function<\/strong><\/a> with $\\operatorname{atan2}(y, x) = \\arctan (\\frac{y}{x})$ whenever $x&gt;0$.)<\/p>\n<p>Conversely, to go from $(r, \\theta)$ to $(x, y)$, we use the formulas: \\begin{align*} x &amp; = r \\cos \\theta \\\\[4px] y &amp; = r \\sin \\theta \\end{align*} The exponential form of complex numbers also makes <strong>multiplying<\/strong> complex numbers much easier \u2014 much like the same way rectangular coordinates make addition easier. For example, given two complex numbers $z_1 = r_1 e^{i \\theta_1}$ and $z_2 = r_2 e^{i \\theta_2}$, we can now multiply them together as follows: \\begin{align*} z_1 z_2 &amp; = r_1 e^{i \\theta_1} \\cdot r_2 e^{i \\theta_2} \\\\ &amp; = r_1 r_2 e^{i(\\theta_1 + \\theta_2)} \\end{align*} In the same spirit, we can also <strong>divide<\/strong> the same two numbers as follows: \\begin{align*} \\frac{z1}{z2} &amp; = \\frac{r_1 e^{i \\theta_1}}{r_2 e^{i \\theta_2}} \\\\ &amp; = \\frac{r_1}{r_2} e^{i (\\theta_{1}-\\theta_2)} \\end{align*}<\/p>\n<div class=\"colorbox khaki\">\n<p class=\"colorbox-title\">Note<\/p>\n<p>To be sure, these do presuppose <strong>properties of exponent<\/strong> such as $e^{z_1+z_2}=e^{z_1} e^{z_2}$ and $e^{-z_1} = \\frac{1}{e^{z_1}}$, which for example can be established by expanding the power series of $e^{z_1}$, $e^{-z_1}$ and $e^{z_2}$.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Had we used the rectangular $x + iy$ notation instead, the same division would have required multiplying by the <a href=\"\/hub\/higher-math\/math-symbols\/algebra-symbols\/#Operators_Related_to_Complex_Numbers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>complex conjugate<\/strong><\/a> in the numerator and denominator. With the polar coordinates, the situation would have been the same (save perhaps worse).<\/p>\n<p>If anything, the <strong>exponential form<\/strong> sure makes it easier to see that multiplying two complex numbers is really the same as multiplying magnitudes and adding angles, and that dividing two complex numbers is really the same as dividing magnitudes and subtracting angles.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Alternate_Definitions_of_Key_Functions\"><\/span>Alternate Definitions of Key Functions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Euler&#8217;s formula can also be used to provide alternate definitions to <strong>key functions<\/strong> such as the complex exponential function, trigonometric functions such as sine, cosine and tangent, and their hyperbolic counterparts. It can also be used to establish the relationship between some of these functions as well.<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Complex_Exponential_Function\"><\/span>Complex Exponential Function<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<p>To begin, recall that Euler&#8217;s formula states that \\[ e^{ix} = \\cos x + i \\sin x \\] If the formula is assumed to hold for real $x$ only, then the exponential function is only defined up to the <strong>imaginary numbers<\/strong>. However, we can also expand the exponential function to include all complex numbers \u2014 by following a very simple trick:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$e^{z} = e^{x+iy} \\, (= e^x e^{iy}) \\overset{df}{=}\u00a0 e^x (\\cos y + i \\sin y)$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<div class=\"colorbox khaki\">\n<p class=\"colorbox-title\">Note<\/p>\n<p>Here, we are not necessarily assuming that the <strong>additive property for exponents<\/strong> holds (which it does), but that the first and the last expression are equal.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In other words, the exponential of the complex number $x+iy$ is simply the complex number whose <strong>magnitude<\/strong> is $e^x$ and whose <strong>angle<\/strong> is $y$. Interestingly, this means that complex exponential essentially maps vertical lines to circles. Here&#8217;s an animation to illustrate the point:<\/p>\n<div><iframe class=\"iframe\" src=\"https:\/\/www.desmos.com\/calculator\/hntpdkicjn?embed\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Trigonometric_Functions\"><\/span>Trigonometric Functions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Apart from extending the domain of exponential function, we can also use Euler&#8217;s formula to derive a similar equation for the <strong>opposite angle<\/strong> $-x$: \\[ e^{-ix} = \\cos x-i \\sin x \\] This equation, along with Euler&#8217;s formula itself, constitute a <strong>system of equations<\/strong> from which we can isolate both the sine and cosine functions.<\/p>\n<p>For example, by subtracting the $e^{-ix}$ equation from the $e^{ix}$ equation, the cosines cancel out and after dividing by $2i$, we get the complex exponential form of the <strong>sine function<\/strong>:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$\\sin x = \\dfrac{e^{ix}-e^{-ix}}{2i}$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>Similarly, by adding the two equations together, the sines cancel out and after dividing by $2$, we get the complex exponential form of the <strong>cosine<\/strong> function:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$\\cos x = \\dfrac{e^{ix} + e^{-ix}}{2}$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>To be sure, here&#8217;s a <strong>video<\/strong> illustrating the same derivations in more detail.<\/p>\n<div><iframe class=\"iframe\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/LE2uwd9V5vw?start=180\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<p>On the other hand, the <strong>tangent function<\/strong> is defined to be $\\frac{\\sin x}{\\cos x}$, so in terms of complex exponentials, it becomes:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$\\tan x = \\dfrac{e^{ix}-e^{-ix}}{i(e^{ix} + e^{-ix})}$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>If Euler&#8217;s formula is proven to hold for all complex numbers (as we did in the <a href=\"#Derivation_1_Power_Series\">proof via power series<\/a>), then the same would be true for these three formulas as well. Their presence allows us to switch freely between <strong>trigonometric functions<\/strong> and <strong>complex exponentials<\/strong>, which is a big plus when it comes to calculating derivatives and integrals.<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Hyperbolic_Functions\"><\/span>Hyperbolic Functions<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In addition to trigonometric functions, <strong>hyperbolic functions<\/strong> are yet another class of functions that can be defined in terms of complex exponentials. In fact, it&#8217;s through this connection we can identify a hyperbolic function with its trigonometric counterpart.<\/p>\n<p>For example, by starting with <strong>complex sine<\/strong> and <strong>complex cosine<\/strong> and plugging in $iz$ (and making use of the facts that $i^2 = -1$ and $1\/i = -i$), we have: \\begin{align*} \\sin iz &amp; = \\frac{e^{i(iz)}-e^{-i(iz)}}{2i} \\\\ &amp; = \\frac{e^{-z}-e^{z}}{2i} \\\\ &amp; = i \\left(\\frac{e^z-e^{-z}}{2}\\right) \\\\ &amp; = i \\sinh z \\end{align*} \\begin{align*} \\cos iz &amp; = \\frac{e^{i(iz)}+e^{-i(iz)}}{2} \\\\ &amp; = \\frac{e^z + e^{-z}}{2} \\\\ &amp; = \\cosh z \\end{align*} From these, we can also plug in $iz$ into <strong>complex tangent<\/strong> and get: \\[ \\tan (iz) = \\frac{\\sin iz}{\\cos iz} = \\frac{i \\sinh z}{\\cosh z}\u00a0 = i \\tanh z \\] In short, this means that we can now define <strong>hyperbolic functions<\/strong> in terms of trigonometric functions as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p>\\begin{align*} \\sinh z &amp; = \\frac{\\sin iz}{i} \\\\[4px]\u00a0 \\cosh z &amp; = \\cos iz \\\\[4px]\u00a0 \\tanh z &amp; = \\frac{\\tan iz}{i} \\end{align*}<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>But then, these are not the only functions we can provide new definitions to. In fact, the <strong>complex logarithm<\/strong> and the <strong>general complex exponential<\/strong> are two other classes of functions we can define \u2014 as a result of Euler&#8217;s formula.<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Complex_Logarithm_and_General_Complex_Exponential\"><\/span>Complex Logarithm and General Complex Exponential<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The logarithm of a complex number behaves in a peculiar manner when compared to the <a href=\"\/logarithm-theory\/#Logarithm_%E2%80%94_A_Review\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">logarithm of a real number<\/a>. More specifically, it has an <strong>infinite<\/strong> number of values instead of one.<\/p>\n<p>To see how, we start with the definition of <strong>logarithmic function<\/strong> as the inverse of exponential function. That is: \\begin{align*} e^{\\ln z} &amp; = z &amp; \\ln (e^z) &amp; = z \\end{align*} Furthermore, we also know that for any pair of complex numbers $z_1$ and $z_2$, the <strong>additive property for exponents<\/strong> holds: \\[ e^{z_1} e^{z_2} = e^{z_1+z_2} \\] Thus, when a non-zero complex number is expressed as an <strong>exponential<\/strong>, we have that: \\[ z = |z| e^{i\\phi} = e^{\\ln |z|} e^{i\\phi} = e^{\\ln |z| + i\\phi} \\] where $|z|$ is the magnitude of $z$ and $\\phi$ is the angle of $z$ from the positive real axis. And since logarithm is simply the <strong>exponent<\/strong> of a number when it&#8217;s raised to $e$, the following definition is in order: \\[ \\ln z = \\ln |z| + i\\phi \\] At first, this seems like a robust way of defining the complex logarithm. However, a second look reveals that the logarithm defined this way can assume an <strong>infinite number of values<\/strong> \u2014 due to the fact that $\\phi$ can also be chosen to be any other number of the form $\\phi + 2\\pi k$ (where $k$ is an integer).<\/p>\n<p>For example, we&#8217;ve seen from earlier that $e^{0}=1$ and $e^{2\\pi i}=1$. This means one could define the logarithm of $1$ to be both $0$ and $2\\pi i$ \u2014 or any number of the form $2\\pi ki$ for that matter (where $k$ is an integer).<\/p>\n<p>To solve this conundrum, two separate approaches are usually used. The first approach is to simply consider the complex logarithm as a <strong>multi-valued function<\/strong>. That is, a function that maps each input to a set of values. One way to achieve this is to define $\\ln z$ as follows: \\[ \\{\\ln |z| + i(\\phi + 2\\pi k) \\} \\] where $-\\pi &lt; \\phi \\le \\pi$ and $k$ is an integer. Here, the clause $-\\pi &lt; \\phi \\le \\pi$ has the effect of restricting the angle of $z$ to only one candidate. Because of that, the $\\phi$ defined this way is usually called the <strong>principal angle<\/strong> of $z$.<\/p>\n<p>The second approach, which is arguably more elegant, is to simply define the complex logarithm of $z$ so that $\\phi$ is the principal angle of $z$. With that understanding, the original definition then becomes <strong>well-defined<\/strong>:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$\\ln z = \\ln |z| + i\\phi$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>For example, under this new rule, we would have that $\\ln 1 = 0$ and $\\ln i = \\ln \\left( e^{i\\frac{\\pi}{2}} \\right) = i\\frac{\\pi}{2}$. No longer are we stuck with the problem of <strong>periodicity of angles<\/strong>!<\/p>\n<p>However, with the restriction that $-\\pi &lt; \\phi \\le \\pi$, the range of complex logarithm is now reduced to the rectangular region $-\\pi &lt; y \\le \\pi$ (i.e., the <strong>principal branch<\/strong>). And if we want to preserve the inverse relationship between logarithm and exponential, we&#8217;d also need to do the same to the domain of exponential function as well.<\/p>\n<p>But then, because the complex logarithm is now well-defined, we can also define many other things based on it without running into ambiguity. One such example would be the <strong>general complex exponential <\/strong>(with a non-zero base $a$), which can be defined as follows:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$a^z = e^{\\ln (a^z)} \\overset{df}{=} e^{z \\ln a}$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<div class=\"colorbox khaki\">\n<p class=\"colorbox-title\">Note<\/p>\n<p>Here, we are not assuming that the <a href=\"\/logarithm-theory\/#Power_Rule\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>power rule for logarithm<\/strong><\/a> holds (because <a href=\"\/logarithm-theory\/#Properties_of_Logarithm_%E2%80%94_An_Update\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">it doesn&#8217;t<\/a>), but that the first and the last expression are equal.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>For example, using the general complex exponential as defined above, we can now get a sense of what $i^i$ actually means: \\begin{align*} i^i &amp; = e^{i \\ln i} \\\\ &amp; = e^{i \\frac{\\pi}{2}i} \\\\ &amp; = e^{-\\frac{\\pi}{2}} \\\\ &amp; \\approx 0.208 \\end{align*}<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Alternate_Proofs_of_De_Moivres_Theorem_and_Trigonometric_Additive_Identities\"><\/span>Alternate Proofs of De Moivre\u2019s Theorem and Trigonometric Additive Identities<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The theorem known as <strong>de Moivre\u2019s theorem<\/strong> states that<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">$(\\cos x + i \\sin x)^n = \\cos nx + i \\sin nx$<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>where $x$ is a real number and $n$ is an integer. By default, this can be shown to be true by <a href=\"\/math-glossary\/#induction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">induction<\/a> (through the use of some trigonometric identities), but with the help of <strong>Euler&#8217;s formula<\/strong>, a much simpler proof now exists.<\/p>\n<p>To begin, recall that the <strong>multiplicative property for exponents<\/strong> states that \\[ (e^z)^k = e^{zk} \\] While this property is generally not true for complex numbers, it does hold in the special case where $k$ is an <strong>integer<\/strong>. Indeed, it&#8217;s not hard to see that in this case, the mathematics essentially boils down to repeated applications of the additive property for exponents.<\/p>\n<p>And with that settled, we can then easily derive de Moivre&#8217;s theorem as follows: \\[ (\\cos x + i \\sin x)^n = {(e^{ix})}^n = e^{i nx} = \\cos nx + i \\sin nx \\] In practice, this theorem is commonly used to find the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nth_root#nth_roots\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>roots<\/strong><\/a> of a complex number, and to obtain <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Closed-form_expression\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><strong>closed-form expressions<\/strong><\/a> for $\\sin nx$ and $\\cos nx$. It does so by reducing functions raised to high powers to simple trigonometric functions \u2014 so that calculations can be done with ease.<\/p>\n<p>In fact, de Moivre&#8217;s theorem is not the only theorem whose proof can be simplified as a result of Euler&#8217;s formula. Other identities, such as the <strong>additive identities<\/strong> for $\\sin (x+y)$ and $\\cos (x+y)$, also benefit from that effect as well.<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, we already know that for all real $x$ and $y$: \\begin{align*} \\cos (x+y) + i \\sin (x+y) &amp; = e^{i(x+y)} \\\\ &amp; = e^{ix} \\cdot e^{iy} \\\\ &amp; = ( \\cos x + i \\sin x ) (\\cos y + i \\sin y) \\\\ &amp; = (\\cos x \\cos y-\\sin x \\sin y) \\\\[1px] &amp; \\; \\; + i(\\sin x \\cos y + \\cos x \\sin y)\u00a0 \\end{align*} Once there, equating the <strong>real<\/strong> and <strong>imaginary parts<\/strong> on both sides then yields the famed identities we were looking for:<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p>\\begin{align*} \\cos (x+y) &amp; = \\cos x \\cos y-\\sin x \\sin y\u00a0 \\\\[4px] \\sin (x+y) &amp; = \\sin x \\cos y + \\cos x \\sin y \u00a0\\end{align*}<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Conclusion\"><\/span>Conclusion<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As can be seen above, <strong>Euler&#8217;s formula<\/strong> is a rare gem in the realm of mathematics. It establishes the fundamental relationship between exponential and trigonometric functions, and paves the way for much development in the world of complex numbers, complex functions and related theory.<\/p>\n<p>Indeed, whether it&#8217;s Euler&#8217;s identity or complex logarithm, Euler&#8217;s formula seems to leave no stone unturned whenever expressions such $\\sin$, $i$ and $e$ are involved. It&#8217;s a <strong>powerful tool<\/strong> whose mastery can be tremendously rewarding, and for that reason is a rightful candidate of &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu\/I_22.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">the most remarkable formula in mathematics<\/a>&#8221;.<\/p>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><thead><tr><th>Description<\/th><th>Statement<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Euler&#8217;s formula<\/strong><\/td><td>$e^{ix} = \\cos x + i \\sin x$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Euler&#8217;s identity<\/strong><\/td><td>$e^{i \\pi} + 1 = 0$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Complex number<\/strong> (exponential form)<\/td><td>$z = r e^{i \\theta}$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Complex exponential<\/strong><\/td><td>$e^{x+iy} = e^x (\\cos y + i \\sin y)$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Sine<\/strong> (exponential form)<\/td><td>$\\sin x = \\dfrac{e^{ix}-e^{-ix}}{2i}$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Cosine<\/strong> (exponential form)<\/td><td>$\\cos x = \\dfrac{e^{ix} + e^{-ix}}{2}$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Tangent<\/strong> (exponential form)<\/td><td>$\\tan x = \\dfrac{e^{ix}-e^{-ix}}{i(e^{ix} + e^{-ix})}$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Hyperbolic sine<\/strong> (exponential form)<\/td><td>$\\sinh z = \\dfrac{\\sin iz}{i}$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Hyperbolic cosine<\/strong> (exponential form)<\/td><td>$\\cosh z  = \\cos iz$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Hyperbolic tangent<\/strong>  (exponential form)<\/td><td>$\\tanh z = \\dfrac{\\tan iz}{i}$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Complex logarithm<\/strong><\/td><td>$\\ln z = \\ln |z| + i\\phi$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>General complex exponentia<\/strong>l<\/td><td>$a^z = e^{z \\ln a}$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>De Moivre&#8217;s theorem<\/strong><\/td><td>$(\\cos x + i \\sin x)^n = \\cos nx + i \\sin nx$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Additive identity of sine<\/strong><\/td><td>$\\sin (x+y) = \\sin x \\cos y + \\cos x \\sin y$<\/td><\/tr><tr><td><strong>Additive identity of cosine<\/strong><\/td><td>$\\cos (x+y) = \\cos x \\cos y-\\sin x \\sin y$<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide mediatext\"><div class=\"wp-block-group__inner-container is-layout-flow wp-block-group-is-layout-flow\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-media-text alignwide is-stacked-on-mobile is-vertically-aligned-center\" style=\"grid-template-columns:27% auto\"><figure class=\"wp-block-media-text__media\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"400\" height=\"518\" src=\"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-content\/uploads\/Eulers-Formula-Guide-Ebook-Cover.png\" alt=\"Ebook cover of The Complete Guide to Euler&#039;s Formula\" class=\"wp-image-33344 size-full\" title=\"\"><\/figure><div class=\"wp-block-media-text__content\">\n<p style=\"line-height: 1.35em; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 800; text-align: center;\">Prefer the PDF version instead?<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">Get our complete, 22-page guide on Euler&#8217;s formula\u2014in offline, printable <strong>PDF format<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<span class=\"tve-leads-two-step-trigger tl-2step-trigger-33343\"><div class=\"wp-block-button aligncenter\"><a class=\"wp-block-button__link has-text-color has-background\" href=\"#\" style=\"background-color:#007ed8;color:#fcfcfc;border-radius:1px;\">Yes. That&#8217;d be great.<\/a><\/div><\/span>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Sources\"><\/span>Sources<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Mathematics-Physicists-Susan-Lea\/dp\/0534379974\/?tag=mathvault02-20\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Mathematics for Physicists (Susan M. Lea)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Cambridge-Handbook-Physics-Formulas\/dp\/0521575079\/?tag=mathvault02-20\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas (Graham Woan)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A complete guide on the famous Euler&#8217;s formula for complex numbers, along with its interpretations, examples, derivations and numerous applications.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":117,"featured_media":31959,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[17,368,367,257],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-31923","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-calculus","category-applied-math","category-college-math","category-complex-number","post-wrapper","thrv_wrapper"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/31923","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/117"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=31923"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/31923\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/31959"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=31923"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=31923"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mathvault.ca\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=31923"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}