{"id":1460,"date":"2019-12-03T05:00:29","date_gmt":"2019-12-03T05:00:29","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/human-memory.net\/?p=1460"},"modified":"2022-05-20T09:37:38","modified_gmt":"2022-05-20T09:37:38","slug":"optic-chiasm","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/","title":{"rendered":"Optic Chiasm"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_17 counter-hierarchy counter-decimal ez-toc-grey\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\">Table of Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" style=\"display: none;\"><i class=\"ez-toc-glyphicon ez-toc-icon-toggle\"><\/i><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class=\"ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1\"><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Boost_Your_Brain_with_Mind_Lab_Pro\" title=\"\n\t\tBoost Your Brain with Mind Lab Pro\n\t\">\n\t\tBoost Your Brain with Mind Lab Pro\n\t<\/a><ul class=\"ez-toc-list-level-3\"><li class=\"ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Benefits\" title=\"\n\t\tBenefits\n\t\">\n\t\tBenefits\n\t<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#History\" title=\"History\">History<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Location\" title=\"Location\">Location<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Organization_of_Nerve_Fibers\" title=\"Organization of Nerve Fibers\">Organization of Nerve Fibers<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Blood_Supply\" title=\"Blood Supply\">Blood Supply<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Physiology\" title=\"Physiology\">Physiology<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Chiasmal_Syndromes\" title=\"Chiasmal Syndromes\">Chiasmal Syndromes<\/a><ul class=\"ez-toc-list-level-3\"><li class=\"ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-9\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Pituitary_Adenoma\" title=\"Pituitary Adenoma\">Pituitary Adenoma<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-10\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Meningioma\" title=\"Meningioma \">Meningioma <\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-11\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Gliomas\" title=\"Gliomas\">Gliomas<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-12\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#Other_causes_of_Chiasmal_Syndromes\" title=\"Other causes of Chiasmal Syndromes\">Other causes of Chiasmal Syndromes<\/a><\/li><li class=\"ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-13\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#ConclusionSummary\" title=\"Conclusion\/Summary\">Conclusion\/Summary<\/a><ul class=\"ez-toc-list-level-4\"><li class=\"ez-toc-heading-level-4\"><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-14\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#References\" title=\"References\">References<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Boost_Your_Brain_with_Mind_Lab_Pro\"><\/span>\n\t\tBoost Your Brain with Mind Lab Pro\n\t<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n\t<p><strong>Your brain is incredibly complex. Mind Lab Pro has 11 different nootropics all working together to increase your cognition and brainpower to help you live a better life.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>If you need to perform at your best, need to focus, problem-solve or maintain a calm and clear mindset, you will get a huge benefit from taking Mind Lab Pro.<\/p>\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.mindlabpro.com?a_aid=5f9802ef2d90f&amp;a_bid=6d45f5c3\" target=\"_blank\" role=\"button\" rel=\"noopener nofollow noreferrer\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTry Mind Lab Pro Today \u2192\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/takespruce.com\/product\/750mg-lab-grade-cbd-oil?rfsn=4424690.8df824\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener nofollow noreferrer\" itemprop=\"url\">\n\t\t\t\t<img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" height=\"281\" width=\"300\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/mind-lab-pro.png?resize=300%2C281&#038;ssl=1\" alt=\"mind-lab-pro\" itemprop=\"image\" title=\"mind-lab-pro\" onerror=\"this.style.display='none'\">\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Benefits\"><\/span>\n\t\tBenefits\n\t<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n\t<ul>\n<li>Better focus<\/li>\n<li>Calm mindset<\/li>\n<li>55+ memory and mood<\/li>\n<li>Performance focused athletes<\/li>\n<li>Student learning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\t<p>The light a person perceives through his eyes is carried to the <strong>visual cortex<\/strong> by the means of the optic nerve. Most people believe that the optic nerve of one side carries signals related to vision to the same side of the visual cortex. <\/p>\n<p>Still, others believe that it carries light perception to the contralateral half of the brain. But the truth is that both these assumptions are false.<\/p>\n<figure><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/Optic-Chiasm.jpg?fit=1010%2C1024&amp;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"379\" height=\"384\"><\/figure>\nIt is true that the optic nerves cross and pass to the<br>\nopposite side of the cortex. However, the arrangement of nerve fibers is<br>\nsomehow complex. In this article,&nbsp; we<br>\nwill talk in detail about this arrangement. \nOptic chiasm is a structure located in the forebrain.<br>\nIt is the point at which the two optic nerves cross each other and travel to the<br>\nopposite side of the brain. In this article, we will talk in detail about the<br>\nlocation, structure, function and pathologic abnormalities of the optic chiasm.\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"History\"><\/span>History<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Throughout history, the optic chiasm had been considered as an area of brain where <strong>two vessels cross<\/strong> each other. Many speculations were made about it. It was also believed that it is the crossing of two vessels that bring tears to the eyes. <\/p>\n<p>At that time, it was thought that tears were made in the brain. These misconceptions continue to exist until it was proved that optic chiasm is a structure comprising of nervous tissue. It was put forward that the optic nerves from the two eyes undergo partial desiccation in optic chiasm. <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Location\"><\/span>Location<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<figure><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/optic.jpg?resize=567%2C315\" alt=\"\" width=\"567\" height=\"315\"><\/figure>\n<p>Optic chiasm is located at the bottom or <strong>base of the brain<\/strong>. It is present just below the hypothalamus. It is located at the junction of anterior wall and floor of the hypothalamus. <\/p>\n<p>The anterolateral angles are continuous with the optic nerves and the posterolateral angles are continuous with the optic tracts. It is surrounded by the arteries forming the circle of Willis and is present in between the circle. <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Organization_of_Nerve_Fibers\"><\/span>Organization of Nerve Fibers<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Let us first understand nerve fibers arising from the eyeball. The nerve fibers from the nasal half of eye correspond to the temporal of lateral half of eye field, while the <strong>temporal half <\/strong>of nerve fibers correspond to the nasal half or medial half of the eye field. <\/p>\n<figure><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/optic-chiasm.png?resize=262%2C363\" alt=\"\" width=\"262\" height=\"363\"><\/figure>\n<p>As discussed earlier, optic chiasm is a nervous structure at which fibers of the optic nerve cross. The fibers are arranged in such a way that the <strong>nasal fibers<\/strong> from both sides crossover and pass to the opposite side of the brain.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, the fibers from the temporal half of retina or <strong>hemiretina<\/strong> remain on the same side whereas the fibers from the nasal half are crossed.<\/p>\nAs a result, the left optic tract contains the nasal<br>\nfibers from the right eye and the temporal fibers from the left eye. The<br>\nopposite is true for the right optic tract. \n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Blood_Supply\"><\/span>Blood Supply<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<figure><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i1.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/circle-of-Willis-scaled.png?fit=643%2C1024&amp;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"286\" height=\"455\"><\/figure>\n<p>As stated earlier, the optic chiasm is surrounded by the circle of Willis. The <a href=\"http:\/\/human-memory.net\/brain-blood-supply\/\">blood is supplied<\/a> to optic chiasm by the small branches arising from the arteries forming the <strong>circle of Willis<\/strong>. These include the anterior, middle and<strong> posterior meningeal artery<\/strong>. <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Physiology\"><\/span>Physiology<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In order to understand why optic chiasm is important, let us first take a look at the <strong>visual pathway<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>The nerve fibers from the temporal and nasal halves of eyeball leave the eyeball as an optic nerve. The fibers in this nerve are present separately. At optic chiasm, the fibers from the nasal half cross while the fibers from the temporal half remain uncrossed. <\/p>\n<figure><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i1.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/visual-pathway.png?fit=695%2C1024&amp;ssl=1\" alt=\"\" width=\"298\" height=\"438\"><\/figure>\n<p>From the optic chiasm, fibers pass to the optic tract. The left optic tract contains <strong>uncrossed temporal fibers <\/strong>from the left eyeball and crossed nasal fibers from the right eyeball. <\/p>\n<p>The optic tracts terminate at the lateral geniculate body. The optic radiations then pass from the lateral geniculate body to the visual cortex, carrying the visual sensation. <\/p>\n<p>This <strong>crossing over of optic fibers<\/strong> is important in such a way that it allows the same hemispheric visual field to be perceived by visual cortex from both eyes. This can be understood from the example that the left visual cortex receives the temporal visual field from the right eye (by crossed right nasal fibers) and the nasal visual field from the left eye (via uncrossed left temporal fibers).&nbsp; <\/p>\n<p>This allows the left visual cortex to form a <strong>binocular image<\/strong> of right hemispheric field. The net result of crossing at the optic chiasm is that the right visual cortex senses and processes left-hemispheric vision while the left visual cortex senses and processes right-hemispheric field of vision. <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Chiasmal_Syndromes\"><\/span>Chiasmal Syndromes<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As the name indicates, this syndrome is caused by the<strong> lesions of optic chiasm<\/strong>. This syndrome is manifested by a set of signs and symptoms along with impaired vision. The degree of vision impairment depends on the location of lesion.<\/p>\n<figure><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/Chiasmal-Syndromes.jpg?w=1200\" alt=\"\"><\/figure>\nThe causes of chiasmal syndrome may be intrinsic or<br>\nextrinsic.\n<p>Extrinsic causes include compression of optic chiasm by some extrinsic factor that me a vascular aneurysm of a tumor such as pituitary<strong> adenoma<\/strong>, <strong>meningioma<\/strong>, etc. Pituitary adenomas are the most common cause of chiasmal syndrome. <\/p>\nThe intrinsic causes include thickening of chiasma.<br>\nThe most common intrinsic etiologies of chiasmal syndrome are gliomas and<br>\nmultiple sclerosis. \nAll these etiologies are discussed briefly in the<br>\nfollowing subsections. \n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Pituitary_Adenoma\"><\/span>Pituitary Adenoma<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<figure><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/Pituitary-Adenoma-1024x376.png?resize=612%2C224\" alt=\"\" width=\"612\" height=\"224\"><\/figure>\n<p>Pituitary adenoma is a benign tumor arising from the pituitary gland. They are the number one cause of optic chiasm abnormalities. They can sometimes cause impaired vision. <\/p>\n<p>As the pituitary adenoma grows, it puts pressure on the optic nerve and the optic chiasm. This pressure compresses the nerve and causes vision impairment. It can even cause complete and permanent blindness. <\/p>\nThe general sign and symptoms experienced by a person<br>\nwith pituitary adenoma include the following:\n<ul>\n<li>Headache<\/li>\n<li>Nausea <\/li>\n<li>Impaired smell perception<\/li>\n<li>Depression<\/li>\n<li>Weight changes<\/li>\n<li>Sexual dysfunction<\/li>\n<li>Menstrual irregularities<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;The <strong>pituitary adenoma <\/strong>causes an increase in the secretion of pituitary hormones. It can result in corresponding changes in the body along with their own clinical presentations. <\/p>\nThe pituitary adenomas can be detected easily by<br>\nelevated levels of growth hormone in the patient\u2019s blood. The diagnosis of<br>\npituitary adenoma is confirmed by MRI of the brain or CT scan. \nOnce the adenoma is detected as a macroadenoma, it can<br>\nbe treated via surgical excision of the tumor or the entire gland.\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Meningioma\"><\/span>Meningioma <span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<figure><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/Meningioma.jpg?resize=346%2C269\" alt=\"\" width=\"346\" height=\"269\"><\/figure>\n<p>These are the benign <strong>tumors of meninges<\/strong>. They mostly arise from the arachnoid layer of meninges. The meningiomas of diaphragma sella and sphenoid can cause chiasmal syndrome. This is because they can compress the optic chiasm and result in a number of visual abnormalities.<\/p>\n<p>The diagnosis of meningioma compressing optic chiasm is also made by <strong>radiological studies<\/strong> of the brain such as MRI or CT scan.<\/p>\nThe treatment of meningiomas is surgical intervention<br>\nor radiotherapy. \n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Gliomas\"><\/span>Gliomas<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The gliomas are the <strong>benign tumors of glial cells<\/strong> occurring in the CNS. The gliomas of optic chiasm usually arise from the astrocytes.<\/p>\n<figure><img data-recalc-dims=\"1\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/human-memory.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/Gliomas.gif?resize=530%2C262\" alt=\"\" width=\"530\" height=\"262\"><\/figure>\n<p>The gliomas are slowly developing tumors and are more common in children. They are more frequently associated with<strong> type-1 neurofibroblastomas<\/strong>. <\/p>\nThe diagnosis of optic chiasm glioma is made by MRI or<br>\nCT scan findings. \n<p>The treatment involves resection of the optic nerve. <\/p>\nOptic chiasm gliomas have poor prognosis. The<br>\nprognosis is worse if the tumor has become malignant and extended to the hypothalamus.\n\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Other_causes_of_Chiasmal_Syndromes\"><\/span>Other causes of Chiasmal Syndromes<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>We have discussed briefly some of the important causes of <strong>chiasmal syndromes.<\/strong> Below is a list of some other conditions that can sometimes lead to chiasmal syndromes. <\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Craniopharyngioma<\/li>\n<li>Multiple sclerosis<\/li>\n<li>Neurofibroblastomas<\/li>\n<li>Infections<\/li>\n<li>Inflammatory processes<\/li>\n<li>Cysts in brain<\/li>\n<li>Aneurysm of blood vessels<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"ConclusionSummary\"><\/span>Conclusion\/Summary<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\nOptic chiasm is a nervous structure located at the<br>\nbase of the brain just below the hypothalamus. \nIt receives optic nerves from both the eyeballs and<br>\ncontinues as optic tracts. \nOptic chiasm provides a site for the crossing over or<br>\ndesiccation of optic nerve fibers so that contralateral half of the visual field<br>\nis perceived and processed by the visual cortex. \n<p><strong>Optic chiasm<\/strong> is surrounded by the circle of Willis and derives its blood from the vessels forming this circle. <\/p>\n<p>The nerve fibers in optic chiasm are organized in such a way that the fibers arising from the nasal half of the eyeball crossover and pass to the <strong>contralateral visual cortex.<\/strong> The overall effect is the production of binocular image in such a way that the contralateral hemispherical visual field is received and processed by the visual cortex. <\/p>\nChiasmal syndromes are the abnormalities of optic<br>\nchiasm that can severely impair vision or even can cause blindness.\n<p>Chiasmal syndromes may be due to pressure from an<strong> external structure<\/strong> or due to some intrinsic disease of the structure. <\/p>\nThe important external factors responsible for<br>\nchiasmal syndrome include pituitary adenoma and meningiomas. \nThe intrinsic causes include gliomas, multiple<br>\nsclerosis, etc. \n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"References\"><\/span>References<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<ol>\n<li><em>Colman,      Andrew M. (2006).&nbsp;Oxford Dictionary of Psychology&nbsp;(2nd ed.).      Oxford University Press. p.&nbsp;530.&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>ISBN<\/em><\/a><em>&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/978-0-19-861035-9\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>978-0-19-861035-9<\/em><\/a><em>.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Bainbridge\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Bainbridge, David<\/em><\/a><em>&nbsp;(30      June 2009).&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cuCIyLmJkHoC&amp;pg=PA162\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>Beyond      the Zonules of Zinn: A Fantastic Journey Through Your Brain<\/em><\/a><em>. Harvard      University Press. p.&nbsp;162.&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>ISBN<\/em><\/a><em>&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/978-0-674-02042-9\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>978-0-674-02042-9<\/em><\/a><em>.      Retrieved&nbsp;22 November&nbsp;2015.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>de Lussanet,      Marc H.E.; Osse, Jan W.M. (2012). &#8220;An ancestral axial twist explains      the contralateral forebrain and the optic chiasm in      vertebrates&#8221;.&nbsp;Animal Biology.&nbsp;<strong>62<\/strong>&nbsp;(2):      193\u2013216.&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>arXiv<\/em><\/a><em>:<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1003.1872\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>1003.1872<\/em><\/a><em>.&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>doi<\/em><\/a><em>:<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1163%2F157075611X617102\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>10.1163\/157075611X617102<\/em><\/a><em>.&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>ISSN<\/em><\/a><em>&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1570-7555\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>1570-7555<\/em><\/a><em>.<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Purves,      Dale; Augustine, George; Fitzpatrick, David; Hall, William; LaMantia,      Anthony-Samuel; White, Leonard (2012).&nbsp;Neuroscience. Sinauer      Associates. p.&nbsp;261.&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>ISBN<\/em><\/a><em>&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special:BookSources\/978-0-87893-695-3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>978-0-87893-695-3<\/em><\/a><em>.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>&#8220;eye,      human.&#8221; Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica from&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_2006_Ultimate_Reference_Suite_DVD\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference      Suite DVD<\/a>&nbsp;2009<\/li>\n<li>Jeffery G (October 2001). &#8220;Architecture of the optic chiasm and the mechanisms that sculpt its development&#8221;.&nbsp;<em>Physiol. Rev<\/em>.&nbsp;<strong>81<\/strong>&nbsp;(4): 1393\u2013414.&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">doi<\/a>:<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152%2Fphysrev.2001.81.4.1393\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">10.1152\/physrev.2001.81.4.1393<\/a>.&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">PMID<\/a>&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/11581492\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">11581492<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><em>Foroozan,      Rod (2003).&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"http:\/\/content.wkhealth.com\/linkback\/openurl?sid=WKPTLP:landingpage&amp;an=00055735-200312000-00002\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>&#8220;Chiasmal      syndromes&#8221;<\/em><\/a><em>.&nbsp;Current Opinion in      Ophthalmology.&nbsp;<strong>14<\/strong>&nbsp;(6): 325\u2013331.&nbsp;<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>doi<\/em><\/a><em>:<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1097%2F00055735-200312000-00002\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em>10.1097\/00055735-200312000-00002<\/em><\/a><em>.<\/em><\/li>\n<li> William, R (ed). Stedman\u2019s Medical Dictionary. 25th Edition. Baltimore. Williams and Wilkins, 1990. <\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Table of Contents Boost Your Brain with Mind Lab Pro Benefits HistoryLocationOrganization of Nerve FibersBlood SupplyPhysiologyChiasmal SyndromesPituitary AdenomaMeningioma GliomasOther causes &#8230; <\/p>\n<p class=\"read-more-container\"><a title=\"Optic Chiasm\" class=\"read-more button\" href=\"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/optic-chiasm\/#more-1460\" aria-label=\"Read more about Optic Chiasm\">Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":12,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_generate-full-width-content":"","kt_blocks_editor_width":"","_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1460","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1460","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/12"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1460"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1460\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3869,"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1460\/revisions\/3869"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1460"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1460"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/human-memory.net\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1460"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}