EmSim: AI-Driven VR Simulation for De-Escalation Training in Law Enforcement.

Caroline G. L. Cao Caroline Cao https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1982-6489 Duo Wang Kyrian Liang Wenxuan Song Qingxiao Zheng Zyra Sheikh Jen Whiting Victor Lu Mike Yao Caroline Cao EmSim: AI-Driven VR Simulation for De-Escalation Training in Law Enforcement. 39-47 2026 AIxVR https://doi.org/10.1109/AIxVR67263.2026.00014 conf/aivr/2026 db/conf/aivr/aixvr2026.html#WangLSZSWLYC26 Duo Wang Jianwei Ni Yuhan Zhou Weiyu Ding Wenxuan Song Shandra Jamison Mike Yao Caroline Cao SpatialTutor: Object-Aware Mixed Reality Training for Procedural Medical Skills Training with AI-Driven Support. 57-66 2026 AIxVR https://doi.org/10.1109/AIxVR67263.2026.00016 conf/aivr/2026 db/conf/aivr/aixvr2026.html#WangNZDSJYC26 Duo Wang Kyrian Liang Qingxiao Zheng Wenxuan Song Jen Whiting Mike Yao Caroline G. L. Cao Does Sequencing Matter? Evaluating AI and Human Simulations for High-Stakes Communication Training in Law Enforcement. 1586:1-1586:19 2026 CHI https://doi.org/10.1145/3772318.3791909 conf/chi/2026 db/conf/chi/chi2026.html#WangLZSWYC26 Duo Wang Wenxuan Song Jianwei Ni Qingxiao Zheng Yuhan Zhou Kyrian Liang Mike Yao Caroline G. L. Cao Should the AI Speak First? Evaluating Proactive vs. Reactive Facilitation in Mixed-Reality Medical Training. 1631:1-1631:19 2026 CHI https://doi.org/10.1145/3772318.3791910 conf/chi/2026 db/conf/chi/chi2026.html#WangSNZZLYC26 Houze Yang Caroline Cao Alexandra Hosny Jeeheon Ryu Inki Kim Integrating Machine Learning into Extended Reality: A Critical Review of Computational Approaches to Human Behavior Modeling. 49-59 2025 HCI (75) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-12808-9_4 conf/hci/2025-75 db/conf/hci/hci2025-75.html#YangCHRK25 streams/conf/hci Celia Kessassi Cédric Dumas Caroline G. L. Cao Mathieu Chollet You're Hired! Effect of Virtual Agents' Social Status and Social Attitudes on Stress Induction in Virtual Job Interviews. 869-870 2024 VR Workshops https://doi.org/10.1109/VRW62533.2024.00231 conf/vr/2024w db/conf/vr/vr2024w.html#KessassiDCC24 Celia Kessassi Mathieu Chollet Cédric Dumas Caroline G. L. Cao Social Presence Mediates Audience Behavior Effects on Social Stress in Virtual Public Speaking. 1-8 2023 ACII https://doi.org/10.1109/ACII59096.2023.10388126 conf/acii/2023 db/conf/acii/acii2023.html#KessassiCDC23 Gaëlic Béchu Antoine Beugnard Caroline G. L. Cao Quentin Perez Christelle Urtado Sylvain Vauttier A software engineering point of view on digital twin architecture. 1-4 2022 ETFA https://doi.org/10.1109/ETFA52439.2022.9921617 conf/etfa/2022 db/conf/etfa/etfa2022.html#BechuBCPUV22 Aurélien Léchappé Mathieu Chollet Jérôme Rigaud Caroline G. L. Cao Assessment of Situation Awareness during Robotic Surgery using Multimodal Data. 412-416 2020 ICMI Companion https://doi.org/10.1145/3395035.3425205 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q130844877 conf/icmi/2020c db/conf/icmi/icmi2020c.html#LechappeCRC20

Jinling Wang 0006 Amine Chellali Caroline G. L. Cao Haptic Communication in Collaborative Virtual Environments. 496-508 2016 58 Hum. Factors 3 https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720815618808 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q51585237 db/journals/hf/hf58.html#WangCC16

Amine Chellali Helena M. Mentis Amie Miller Woojin Ahn Venkata Sreekanth Arikatla Ganesh Sankaranarayanan Suvranu De Steven D. Schwaitzberg Caroline G. L. Cao Achieving interface and environment fidelity in the Virtual Basic Laparoscopic Surgical Trainer. 22-37 2016 96 Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2016.07.005 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q92799346 db/journals/ijmms/ijmms96.html#ChellaliMMAASDS16

Doga Demirel Alexander Yu Tansel Halic Ganesh Sankaranarayanan Adam Ryason David Spindler Kathryn L. Butler Caroline G. L. Cao Emil Petrusa Marcos Molina Daniel B. Jones Suvranu De Marc de Moya Stephanie Jones Virtual Airway Skills Trainer (VAST) Simulator. 91-97 2016 MMVR https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-625-5-91 conf/mmvr/2016 db/conf/mmvr/mmvr2016.html#DemirelYHSRSBCP16 Cédric Dumas Timothy R. Coles Hans de Visser Caroline G. L. Cao Florian Grimpen Haptic feedback tuning in colonoscopy simulation. 4400-4404 2016 SMC https://doi.org/10.1109/SMC.2016.7844923 conf/smc/2016 db/conf/smc/smc2016.html#DumasCVCG16 Devin K. Luu Cédric Dumas Timothy R. Coles Jinling Wang 0006 Caroline G. L. Cao Replicating Contralateral Haptic Feedback. 419-424 2015 SMC https://doi.org/10.1109/SMC.2015.84 conf/smc/2015 db/conf/smc/smc2015.html#LuuDCWC15

S. Cunningham Amine Chellali I. Jaffre J. Classe Caroline G. L. Cao Effects of Experience and Workplace Culture in Human-Robot Team Interaction in Robotic Surgery: A Case Study. 75-88 2013 5 Int. J. Soc. Robotics 1 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-012-0170-y db/journals/ijsr/ijsr5.html#CunninghamCJCC13

Venkata Sreekanth Arikatla Ganesh Sankaranarayanan Woojin Ahn Amine Chellali Caroline G. L. Cao Suvranu De Development and Validation of VBLaST-PT<sup>©</sup>: A Virtual Peg Transfer Simulator. 24-30 2013 MMVR https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-209-7-24 conf/mmvr/2013 db/conf/mmvr/mmvr2013.html#ArikatlaSACCD13 Arun Nemani Ganesh Sankaranarayanan Kurt Roberts Lucian Panait Caroline G. L. Cao Suvranu De Hierarchical Task Analysis of Hybrid Rigid Scope Natural Orifice Translumenal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES) Cholecystectomy Procedures. 293-297 2013 MMVR https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-209-7-293 conf/mmvr/2013 db/conf/mmvr/mmvr2013.html#NemaniSRPCD13 Manuel Simoes Caroline G. L. Cao Leonardo: A First Step towards an Interactive Decision Aid for Port-Placement in Robotic Surgery. 491-496 2013 SMC https://doi.org/10.1109/SMC.2013.90 conf/smc/2013 db/conf/smc/smc2013.html#SimoesC13 Jinling Wang 0006 Amine Chellali Caroline G. L. Cao A Study of Communication Modalities in a Virtual Collaborative Task. 542-546 2013 SMC https://doi.org/10.1109/SMC.2013.98 conf/smc/2013 db/conf/smc/smc2013.html#WangCC13

Daniel Greenwald Caroline G. L. Cao Emily W. Bushnell Haptic Detection of Artificial Tumors by Hand and with a Tool in a MIS Environment. 131-138 2012 5 IEEE Trans. Haptics 2 https://doi.org/10.1109/TOH.2011.68 http://doi.ieeecomputersociety.org/10.1109/TOH.2011.68 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q87435585 db/journals/toh/toh5.html#GreenwaldCB12

Emilio Loren Roth Monzon Amine Chellali Cédric Dumas Caroline G. L. Cao Training effects of a visual aid on haptic sensitivity in a needle insertion task. 199-202 2012 HAPTICS https://doi.org/10.1109/HAPTIC.2012.6183791 conf/haptics/2012 db/conf/haptics/haptics2012.html#MonzonCDC12 Caroline Cao Ethan Danahy Jessica Noble Educational robotics for teleoperated general exam. 59-66 2012 TePRA https://doi.org/10.1109/TePRA.2012.6215655 conf/tepra/2012 db/conf/tepra/tepra2012.html#CaoDN12

Caroline G. L. Cao Matthew B. Weinger Jason Slagle Chuan Zhou 0012 Jennie Ou Shakha Gillin Bryant Sheh William Mazzei Differences in Day and Night Shift Clinical Performance in Anesthesiology. 276-290 2008 50 Hum. Factors 2 https://doi.org/10.1518/001872008X288303 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q47669858 db/journals/hf/hf50.html#CaoWSZOGSM08

Caroline G. L. Cao Paul Milgram Direction and Location Are Not Sufficient for Navigating in Nonrigid Environments: An Empirical Study in Augmented Reality. 584-602 2007 16 Presence Teleoperators Virtual Environ. 6 https://doi.org/10.1162/pres.16.6.584 db/journals/presence/presence16.html#CaoM07

R. T. Shimotsu Caroline G. L. Cao The Effect of Color-Contrasting Shadows on a Dynamic 3-D Laparoscopic Surgical Task. 1047-1053 2007 37 IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Part A 6 https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMCA.2007.904738 db/journals/tsmc/tsmca37.html#ShimotsuC07

Mi Zhou Jesse O. Perreault Steven D. Schwaitzberg Caroline G. L. Cao Force perception threshold varies with experience in minimally invasive surgery. 2228-2232 2007 SMC https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSMC.2007.4413671 conf/smc/2007 db/conf/smc/smc2007.html#ZhouPSC07 Audrey K. Bell Caroline G. L. Cao Effects of artificial force feedback in laparoscopic surgery training simulators. 2239-2243 2007 SMC https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSMC.2007.4413670 conf/smc/2007 db/conf/smc/smc2007.html#BellC07

Jesse O. Perreault Caroline G. L. Cao Effects of Vision and Friction on Haptic Perception. 574-586 2006 48 Hum. Factors 3 https://doi.org/10.1518/001872006778606886 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q51113720 db/journals/hf/hf48.html#PerreaultC06

Jessica L. Webster Caroline G. L. Cao Lowering Communication Barriers in Operating Room Technology. 747-758 2006 48 Hum. Factors 4 https://doi.org/10.1518/001872006779166271 https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q50193358 db/journals/hf/hf48.html#WebsterC06

Ryan Everett Schoonmaker Caroline G. L. Cao Vibrotactile force feedback system for minimally invasive surgical procedures. 2464-2469 2006 SMC https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSMC.2006.385233 conf/smc/2006 db/conf/smc/smc2006.html#SchoonmakerC06 Caroline G. L. Cao Augmented reality displays for endoscopic orientation and navigation. 91-92 2000 CHI Extended Abstracts https://doi.org/10.1145/633292.633346 conf/chi/2000a db/conf/chi/chi2000a.html#Cao00 Woojin Ahn Venkata Sreekanth Arikatla Gaëlic Béchu Audrey K. Bell Antoine Beugnard Emily W. Bushnell Kathryn L. Butler Amine Chellali Mathieu Chollet J. Classe Timothy R. Coles S. Cunningham Ethan Danahy Suvranu De Doga Demirel Weiyu Ding Cédric Dumas Shakha Gillin Daniel Greenwald Florian Grimpen Tansel Halic Alexandra Hosny I. Jaffre Shandra Jamison Daniel B. Jones Stephanie Jones Celia Kessassi Inki Kim Aurélien Léchappé Kyrian Liang Victor Lu Devin K. Luu William Mazzei Helena M. Mentis Paul Milgram Amie Miller Marcos Molina Emilio Loren Roth Monzon Marc de Moya Arun Nemani Jianwei Ni Jessica Noble Jennie Ou Lucian Panait Quentin Perez Jesse O. Perreault Emil Petrusa Jérôme Rigaud Kurt Roberts Adam Ryason Jeeheon Ryu Ganesh Sankaranarayanan Ryan Everett Schoonmaker Steven D. Schwaitzberg Bryant Sheh Zyra Sheikh R. T. Shimotsu Manuel Simoes Jason Slagle Wenxuan Song David Spindler Christelle Urtado Sylvain Vauttier Hans de Visser Duo Wang Jinling Wang 0006 Jessica L. Webster Matthew B. Weinger Jen Whiting Houze Yang Mike Yao Alexander Yu Qingxiao Zheng Chuan Zhou 0012 Mi Zhou Yuhan Zhou