CAE Research
Advancing Critical Thinking Through Rigorous Research
Research informs and guides all of CAE’s work. We are committed to advancing understanding of how critical thinking supports workforce readiness and how these skills can be effectively measured and taught. Our research not only drives our mission forward but also provides an evidence-base to inform policy, strategy, and instructional innovation.
Featured Research
Measuring and improving university students’ critical thinking skills through assessment and instruction
DIDAC (2026)
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This study, conducted at a large public university in the United States, reveals that students who received deliberate instruction in critical thinking had significantly higher scores on CAE’s CLA+ performance-based assessment and found these skills to be more important for their academic and future career outcomes than those students who did not. The results of the research find that embedding critical thinking skills instruction and performance-based assessments into a course is an effective strategy for developing and improving students’ skills.
Full Citation:
Zahner, D., Gammenthaler, K., Dawber, T., & Cortellini, O. (2026). Measuring and improving university students’ critical thinking through assessment and instruction. DIDAC, (87), 8-26.
Investigating learning gains of critical thinking and communication skills among Finnish and American higher education students
Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education (2025)
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This collaborative study—conducted by researchers from the University of Eastern Finland, University of Jyväskylä, and CAE—examines learning gains across disciplines to uncover what drives improvement in critical thinking performance.
The study found that higher education students from both Finland and the United States gained critical thinking skills between the time they enter and exit their school, though learning gains were greater for the American students, despite Finnish students entering with a higher average CLA+ score.
Full Citation:
Zahner, D., Hyytinen, H., Nissinen, K., Silvennoinen, K., & Ursin. J. (2025). Investigating learning gains of critical thinking and communication skills among Finnish and American higher education students. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1108/jarhe-05-2025-0420
Assessing and developing critical-thinking skills in higher education
European Journal of Education (2023)
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This article presents findings from an international study of students’ generic skills from six countries using the CLA+ performance-based assessment. Results indicate that higher education students, on average, gain generic skills between entry and exit. However, learning gain is less marked than could be expected and varies significantly among country samples. The authors conclude that it is feasible to reliably and validly measure generic skills in a cross-cultural context and that assessment of these skills is an essential component of best practices in higher education.
Full Citation:
Van Damme, D., Zahner, D., Cortellini, O., Dawber, T., & Rotholz, K. (2023). Assessing and developing critical-thinking skills in higher education. European Journal of Education, 58(3), 369–386.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12563
Additional Research
Does higher education teach students to think critically?
OECD Publishing (2022)
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This publication from OECD reports on the work pursued between 2016 and 2021 to measure critical thinking and written communication using CAE’s CLA+ performance-based assessment in higher education institutions in six countries (the United States, the United Kingdom, Italy, Mexico, Finland, and Chile).
Full Citation:
Van Damme, D., & Zahner, D. (Eds.). (2022). Does higher education teach students to think critically? OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/cc9fa6aa-en
Predictive validity of CLA+
OECD Publishing (2022)
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This research presents two studies using a longitudinal data set that examined the validity of CLA+ as a predictor of post-higher education outcomes for students transitioning from higher education to career. CLA+ data from students who graduated in 2014 and 2017 and survey results from their employers and advisors help answer questions about the importance of these skills in post-higher education and whether they can be predicted by CLA+ test scores.
Full Citation:
Zahner, D., James, J., & Lehrfeld, J. (2022). Predictive validity of CLA+. In D. Van Damme & D. Zahner (Eds.), Can higher education students think critically? (pp. 111–120). OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2022/08/does-higher-education-teach-students-to-think-critically_e6638839/cc9fa6aa-en.pdf
Assessment of undergraduate students’ generic skills in Finland
Ministry of Education and Culture, Finland (2021)
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This study investigated the level of Bachelor-level students’ generic skills, what factors are connected with the level of generic skills, and to what extent these skills develop during higher education studies. The assessed generic skills included analytic reasoning and evaluation, problem solving, writing effectiveness, and writing mechanics using CAE’s CLA+ performance-based assessment.
According to the results, nearly 60 percent of students scored basic or lower level while about 40 percent were proficient or higher level. The research findings suggest that students should begin learning these skills at the lower educational levels and in learning environments outside school, and they should continue developing these skills in higher education.
Full Citation:
Ursin, Jani & Hyytinen, Heidi & Silvennoinen, Kaisa & Nissinen, Kari & Kleemola, Katri & Toom, Auli & Palonen, Maarit. (2021). Assessment of undergraduate students’ generic skills in Finland: Findings of the Kappas! project.
Using the Collegiate Learning Assessment to address the college to career space
Handbook of research on computational tools for real-world skill development (2015)
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Issues in higher education, such as the rising cost of education, career readiness, and increases in the achievement gap have led to a movement toward accountability in higher education. This chapter shares research that demonstrates that entering students who perform better on CAE’s assessments are more likely to have higher cumulative GPAs at the end of their senior year when compared with traditional higher education entrance assessments.
Full Citation:
Zahner, D., Kornhauser, Z. G. C., Benjamin, R., Wolf, R., & Steedle, J. T. (2015). Using the Collegiate Learning Assessment to address the college to career space. In Y. Rosen, S. Ferrara, & M. Mosharraf (Eds.), Handbook of research on computational tools for real-world skill development. IGI Global.
