{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T19:37:14Z","timestamp":1768678634393,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":117,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,5]],"date-time":"2020-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1599264000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Research and Development Centre and General Directorate for National Roads and Highways in Poland","award":["DZP\/RID-I-41\/7\/NCBR\/2016 from 26.02.2016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DZP\/RID-I-41\/7\/NCBR\/2016 from 26.02.2016"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Methods used to evaluate the impact of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) services on road safety are usually based on expert assessments or statistical studies. However, commonly used methods are challenging to apply in the planning process of ITS services. This paper presents the methodology of research using surrogate safety measures calculated and calibrated with the use of simulation techniques and a driving simulator. This approach supports the choice of the type of ITS services that are beneficial for traffic efficiency and road safety. This paper presents results of research on the influence of selected scenarios of variable speed limits on the efficiency and safety of traffic on the sections of motorways and expressways in various traffic conditions. The driving simulator was used to estimate the efficiency of lane-keeping by the driver. The simulation traffic models were calibrated using driving simulator data and roadside sensor data. The traffic models made it possible to determine surrogate safety measures (number of conflicts and their severity) in selected scenarios of using ITS services. The presented studies confirmed the positive impact of Variable Speed Limits (VSLs) on the level of road safety and traffic efficiency. This paper also presents recommendations and plans for further research in this area.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20185057","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,6]],"date-time":"2020-09-06T23:12:49Z","timestamp":1599433969000},"page":"5057","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Assessment of the Speed Management Impact on Road Traffic Safety on the Sections of Motorways and Expressways Using Simulation Methods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0651-4902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacek","family":"Oskarbski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology, 80-233 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6695-4136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomasz","family":"Kami\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Motor Transport Institute, 03-301 Warszawa, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0773-9476","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyandoghere","family":"Kyamakya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, A9020 Klagenfurt, Austria"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5675-4747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean Chamberlain","family":"Chedjou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Smart Systems Technologies, University Klagenfurt, A9020 Klagenfurt, Austria"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2848-0790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karol","family":"\u017barski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology, 80-233 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}]},{"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"P\u0119dzierska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Motor Transport Institute, 03-301 Warszawa, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Randolph, L. (,  2015). Texas Variable Speed Limit Pilot Project. Proceedings of the National Rural Intelligent Transport Systems Conference, San Antonio, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Fudala, N.J., and Fontaine, M.D. (2010). Work Zone Variable Speed Limit Systems: Effectiveness and System Design Issues, Virginia Department of Transportation. FHWA\/VTRC 10-R20."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"130","article-title":"Homogenization effects of variable speed limits, transp","volume":"15","author":"Monzon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Telecommun. J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.3141\/2047-05","article-title":"Effects of variable speed limits on motorway traffic flow","volume":"2047","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2005.10.010","article-title":"Evaluation of variable speed limits for real-time freeway safety improvement","volume":"38","author":"Dilmore","year":"2006","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2014.06.018","article-title":"Development of a variable speed limit strategy to reduce secondary collision risks during inclement weathers","volume":"72","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2020, July 23). Polish Road Safety Observatory. Available online: http:\/\/www.obserwatoriumbrd.pl."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Zieli\u0144ska, A. (2018). Report on the Implementation of Task 2.1 within the Framework of the Project Entitled \u201cImpact of the Usage of Intelligent Transport Systems Services on the Level of Road Safety\u201d (RID-4D), Motor Transport Institute."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"02008","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201823102008","article-title":"Methodology of research on the impact of ITS services on the safety and efficiency of road traffic using transport models","volume":"231","author":"Oskarbski","year":"2018","journal-title":"MATEC Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"24","article-title":"Overview of resulting tools, guidelines, and instruments. IN-SAFETY workpackage 3: New models, tools and guidelines for road safety assessment, deliverable 3.4","volume":"35","author":"Dijkstra","year":"2008","journal-title":"SWOV"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Nilsson, G. (2004). Traffic Safety Dimensions and the Power Model to Describe the Effect of Speed on Safety. [Ph.D. Thesis, Lund University]."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(02)00077-5","article-title":"Assessing the validity of road safety evaluation studies by analysing causal chains","volume":"35","author":"Elvik","year":"2003","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Washington, S., Persaud, B., Lyon, C., and Oh, J. (2005). Validation of Accident Models for Intersections."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2015.03.013","article-title":"Impact of real-time traffic characteristics on freeway crash occurrence: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"79","author":"Roshandel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Reurings, M., Janssen, T., Eenink, R., Elvik, R., Cardoso, J., and Stefan, C. (2006). First deliverable of WP2 of the Ripcord-Iserest project. Accident Prediction Models and Road Safety Impact Assessment: A State of the Art, Institute for Road Safety Research."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.05.308","article-title":"Safety PL\u2014A support tool for road safety impact assessment","volume":"14","author":"Kustra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Part, D. (2010). Highway Safety Manual, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Bonneson, J., Geedipally, S., Pratt, M.P., and Lord, D. (2012). Safety Prediction Methodology and Analysis Tool for Freeways and Interchanges, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Transportation Research Board of The National Academies. Project No. 17-45."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Hauer, E. (1997). Observational before\/after Studies in Road Safety, Pergamon."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hauer, E., Harwood, D.W., Council, F.M., and Griffith, M.S. (2002). Estimating safety by the empirical bayes method: A tutorial. Transp. Res. Rec., 126\u2013131.","DOI":"10.3141\/1784-16"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Council, F.M., Harwood, D.W., Hauer, E., Hughes, W.E., and Vogt, A. (2000). Prediction of the Expected Safety Performance of Rural Two-Lane Highways, Federal Highway Administration. Publication No. FHWA-RD-99-207."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1964","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2008.07.007","article-title":"The predictive validity of empirical Bayes estimates of road safety","volume":"40","author":"Elvik","year":"2008","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elvik, R., Hoye, A., Vaa, T., and Sorensen, M. (2009). The Handbook of Road Safety Measures, Emerald Group Publishing.","DOI":"10.1108\/9781848552517"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198196154200109","article-title":"Identification of sites with promise","volume":"1542","author":"Hauer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"10","article-title":"A comparison of techniques for the identification of hazardous locations","volume":"1238","author":"Higle","year":"1989","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"24","article-title":"Bayesian identification of hazardous locations","volume":"1185","author":"Higle","year":"1988","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-4575(94)90021-3","article-title":"Simulation of traffic conflicts at unsignalized intersections with TSC-Sim","volume":"26","author":"Sayed","year":"1994","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Kaub, A. (2000, January 9\u201313). Highway corridor safety levels of service based on annual risk of injury. Proceedings of the 79th Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"55","article-title":"The assessment of road safety for passing relief lanes using microsimulation and traffic conflict analysis","volume":"2","author":"Cafiso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Transp. Stud. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Archer, J. (2005). Indicators for Traffic Safety Assessment and Prediction and Their Application in Micro-Simulation Modelling: A Study of Urban and Suburban Intersections, Royal Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4225","DOI":"10.1007\/s13369-018-3326-8","article-title":"A case study for surrogate safety assessment model in predicting real-life conflicts","volume":"44","author":"Ghanim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arab. J. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"572","article-title":"Determination if VISSIM and SSAM could estimate pedestrian-vehicle conflicts at signalized intersections","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Transp. Saf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3141\/2432-01","article-title":"Validation of the surrogate safety assessment model for assessment of intersection safety","volume":"2432","author":"Vasconcelos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oskarbski, J., and Zarski, K. (2019, January 5\u20137). Methodology of research on the impact of ramp metering on the safety and efficiency of road traffic using transport models. Proceedings of the 2019 6th International Conference on Models and Technologies for Intelligent Transportation Systems (MT-ITS), Cracow, Poland.","DOI":"10.1109\/MTITS.2019.8883355"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2006.05.001","article-title":"The development of a naturalistic data collection system to perform critical incident analysis: An investigation of safety and fatigue issues in long-haul trucking","volume":"38","author":"Dingus","year":"2006","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.3141\/2147-09","article-title":"Near crashes as crash surrogate for naturalistic driving studies","volume":"2147","author":"Guo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2011.09.002","article-title":"Crashes and crash-surrogate events: Exploratory modeling with naturalistic driving data","volume":"45","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2012.08.006","article-title":"Assessing safety critical braking events in naturalistic driving studies","volume":"16","author":"Bagdadi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Van der Horst, A.R.A. (2007). Video-Recorded Accidents, Conflicts and Road User Behaviour: A Step Forward in Traffic Safety Research, Palmero Ediciones."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.3141\/2237-05","article-title":"Mining microscopic data of vehicle conflicts and collisions to investigate collision factors","volume":"2237","author":"Saunier","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2013.06.026","article-title":"The value of site-based observations complementary to naturalistic driving observations: A pilot study on the right turn manoeuvre","volume":"58","author":"Christoph","year":"2013","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.3141\/1840-12","article-title":"Surrogate safety measures from traffic simulation models","volume":"1840","author":"Gettman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Xin, W., Hourdos, J., and Michalopoulos, P. (2008). Enhanced Micro-Simulation Models for Accurate Safety Assessment of Traffic Management ITS Solutions, University of Minnesota Center for Transportation Studies. CTS 08-17."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"184","article-title":"Proactive evaluation of traffic signs using a traffic sign simulator","volume":"15","author":"Brijs","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Transp. Infrastruct. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(01)00056-2","article-title":"Driving simulator validation for speed research","volume":"34","author":"Godley","year":"2002","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.3141\/2138-16","article-title":"Can driving simulators contribute to solving critical issues in geometric design?","volume":"2138","author":"Bella","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2007.06.007","article-title":"Validating a driving simulator using surrogate safety measures","volume":"40","author":"Yan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Van Haperen, W. (2016). Review of Current Study Methods for VRU Safety. Appendix 5\u2014Systematic Literature Review: Behavioural 0bservations, InDeV. No. 635895."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2005.02.002","article-title":"Modelling safety-related driving behaviour\u2014Impact of parameter values","volume":"39","author":"Bonsall","year":"2005","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(00)00019-1","article-title":"Extended time-to-collision measures for road traffic safety assessment","volume":"33","author":"Minderhoud","year":"2001","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Gettman, D., Sayed, T., Pu, L., and Shelby, S. (2008). Surrogate Safety Assessment Model and Validation, Federal Highway Administration. Publication No. Fhwa-Hrt-08-051."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"66","article-title":"An examination of the microscopic simulation models to identify traffic safety indicators","volume":"10","author":"Bevrani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Intell. Transp. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2003.09.006","article-title":"Freeway safety as a function of traffic flow","volume":"36","author":"Golob","year":"2004","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-4575(83)90068-4","article-title":"Risky driving related to driver and vehicle characteristics","volume":"15","author":"Evans","year":"1983","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2006.01.003","article-title":"Collective responsibility for freeway rear-ending accidents? An application of probabilistic causal models","volume":"38","author":"Davis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2018.02.014","article-title":"Traffic conflict models to evaluate the safety of signalized intersections at the cycle level","volume":"89","author":"Essa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Perkins, S.R., and Harris, J.L. (1968). Traffic conflict characteristics-accident potential at intersections (Paper sponsored by Committee on Traffic Safety and presented at the 47th Annual Meeting). Traffic Safety Accident Research Highway Research. Recovery, Highway Research Board."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Hyd\u00e9n, C. (1987). The development of a method for traffic safety evaluation: The Swedish traffic conflicts technique. Bulletin Lund Institute of Technology, Department, Trafikteknik Tekniska Hoegskdan i Lund."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Svensson, \u00c5. (1998). A Method for Analysing the Traffic Process in a Safety Perspective, Lund University."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lord, D., and Washington, S. (2018). Safe Mobility: Challenges, Methodology and Solutions (Transport and Sustainability), Emerald Publishing.","DOI":"10.1108\/S2044-9941201811"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"PIARC (2004). Road Safety Manual, World Road Association PIARC."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fisher, D.L., Rizzo, M., Caird, J.K., and Lee, J.D. (2011). Handbook of Driving Simulation for Engineering, Medicine, and Psychology, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b10836"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.D., Young, K.L., and Regan, M.A. (2009). Defining driver distraction. Driver Distraction: Theory, Effects, and Mitigation, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420007497.ch3"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Pettitt, M., Burnett, G., and Stevens, A. (2005, January 6\u201310). Defining driver distraction. Proceedings of the 12th World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2012.06.013","article-title":"Driver\u2019s lane keeping ability with eyes off road: Insights from a naturalistic study","volume":"50","author":"Peng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2005.09.007","article-title":"Driver distraction: The effects of concurrent in-vehicle tasks, road environment complexity and age on driving performance","volume":"38","author":"Horberry","year":"2006","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2009.02.002","article-title":"Driver distraction based lane-keeping assistance","volume":"12","author":"Blaschke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klauer, S.G., Dingus, T.A., Neale, V.L., Sudweeks, J.D., and Ramsey, D.J. (2006). The Impact of Driver Inattention on Near-Crash\/Crash Risk: An Analysis Using the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study Data.","DOI":"10.1037\/e729262011-001"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720813485978","article-title":"Lane keeping under cognitive load: Performance changes and mechanisms","volume":"56","author":"He","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerrero-Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez, J., Zeadally, S., and Contreras-Castillo, J. (2018). Sensor technologies for intelligent transportation systems. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041212"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Shi, J., and Wu, J. (2017, January 2\u20134). Research on adaptive cruise control based on curve radius prediction. Proceedings of the 2017 2nd International Conference on Image, Vision and Computing (ICIVC), Chengdu, China."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Bulumulle, G., and B\u00f6l\u00f6ni, L. (2016, January 3\u20136). A study of the automobile blind-spots\u2019 spatial dimensions and angle of orientation on side-sweep accidents. Proceedings of the 2016 Symposium on Theory of Modeling and Simulation (TMS-DEVS), Pasadena, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Kim, S.G., Kim, J.E., Yi, K., and Jung, K.H. (2017, January 8\u201310). Detection and tracking of overtaking vehicle in blind spot area at night time. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics (ICCE), Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Lin, Y.-C., Nguyen, H.-L.T., and Wang, C.-H. (2017, January 16\u201318). Adaptive neuro-fuzzy predictive control for design of adaptive cruise control system. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 14th International Conference on Networking, Sensing and Control (ICNSC), Calabria, Italy."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Tarko, A., Romero, M.A., Bandura, V.K., Ariyur, K.B., and Lizarazo, C.G. (2017, January 8\u201312). Feasibility of Tracking Vehicles at Intersections with a Low-end LiDAR. Proceedings of the Transportation Research Board 96th Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1543","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2015.2401044","article-title":"Driver steering override for lane-keeping aid using computer-aided engineering","volume":"20","author":"Katzourakis","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.07.191","article-title":"Mobile systems applied to traffic management and safety: A state of the art","volume":"134","author":"Astarita","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.432.513","article-title":"Using smartphones as a tool to capture road traffic attributes","volume":"432","author":"Guido","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2007.06.003","article-title":"Evaluation of a cellular phone-based system for measurements of traffic speeds and travel times: A case study from Israel","volume":"15","year":"2007","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"65","article-title":"Sensitivity of simulated vehicle tracking profiles for input into safety performance analysis","volume":"2","author":"Guido","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Transp. Stud."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2012.09.824","article-title":"Estimation of safety performance measures from smartphone sensors","volume":"54","author":"Guido","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Bierlaire, M., Chen, J., and Newman, J. (2010). Modeling Route Choice Behavior from Smartphone GPS Data, Ecole Polytechnique F\u00e9d\u00e9rale de Lausanne. TRANSP-OR 101016."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Barbagli, B., Manes, G., Facchini, R., Marta, S., and Manes, A. (2012, January 24\u201329). Acoustic sensor network for vehicle traffic monitoring. Proceedings of the the 1st International Conference on Advances in Vehicular Systems, Technologies and Applications (VEHICULAR 2012), Venice, Italy."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-its.2015.0250","article-title":"Process for evaluating the data transfer performance of wireless traffic sensors for real-time intelligent transportation systems applications","volume":"11","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geetha, S., and Cicilia, D. (2017, January 19\u201320). IoT enabled intelligent bus transportation system. Proceedings of the 2017 2nd International Conference on Communication and Electronics Systems (ICCES), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/CESYS.2017.8321235"},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"35","article-title":"Accident detection system using image processing and MDR","volume":"7","author":"Ki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Netw. Secur."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Desai, G., Ambre, V., Jakharia, S., and Sherkhane, S. (2018, January 5). Smart road surveillance using image processing. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Smart City and Emerging Technology (ICSCET), Mumbai, Indai.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSCET.2018.8537279"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.3141\/2147-06","article-title":"Large-scale automated analysis of vehicle interactions and collisions","volume":"2147","author":"Saunier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.05.215","article-title":"Weigh-in-motion equipment\u2014Experiences and challenges","volume":"14","author":"Haugen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, C., and Liu, H. (2020). Investigating influence factors of traffic violations at signalized intersections using data gathered from traffic enforcement camera. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0229653"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7420","DOI":"10.3390\/s110807420","article-title":"Smart roadside system for driver assistance and safety warnings: Framework and applications","volume":"11","author":"Jang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Grumert, E., Tapani, A., and Ma, X. (2016, January 20\u201329). Evaluation of four control algorithms used in variable speed limit systems. Proceedings of the Transportation Research Board 95th Annual Meeting, Washinton, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1080\/15472450.2013.764793","article-title":"A kalman filter approach for exploiting bluetooth traffic data when estimating time-dependent od matrices","volume":"17","author":"Montero","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Intell. Transp. Syst. Technol. Plan. Oper."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.05.309","article-title":"Automatic incident detection at intersections with use of telematics","volume":"14","author":"Oskarbski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2016.2631221","article-title":"Multi-modal design of an intelligent transportation system","volume":"18","author":"Chaturvedi","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2014.10.085","article-title":"Level of service estimation based on low-frequency floating car data","volume":"3","author":"Axer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1051\/matecconf\/201823102009","article-title":"The use of simulator studies to assess the impact of ITS services on road users behaviour","volume":"231","author":"Pedzierska","year":"2018","journal-title":"MATEC Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.06.042","article-title":"Data fusion for ITS: Techniques and research needs","volume":"15","author":"Klein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/704504","article-title":"A review of data fusion techniques","volume":"2013","author":"Castanedo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2002.1000251","article-title":"Multisensor fusion and integration: Approaches, applications, and future research directions","volume":"2","author":"Luo","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bdr.2015.12.003","article-title":"Big sensor data applications in urban environments","volume":"4","author":"Ang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Big Data Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kyriakou, C., Christodoulou, S.E., and Dimitriou, L. (2016, January 18\u201320). Roadway pavement anomaly classification utilizing smartphones and artificial intelligence. Proceedings of the 2016 18th Mediterranean Electrotechnical Conference (MELECON), Lemesos, Cyprus.","DOI":"10.1109\/MELCON.2016.7495459"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oskarbski, J. (2011). Perspectives of Telematics Implementation in Tri-City Transport Systems Management and planning, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-24660-9_27"},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"PTV Group (2012). VISUM Fundamentals, PTV Group."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"ATKINS (2015). SATURN User Manual, ATKINS. [11.3th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"PTV Group (2017). PTV VISSIM 10 Manual, PTV Group."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Transportation Research Board (2010). HCM2010 Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"363","article-title":"Capacity reductions at incidents sites on Motorways","volume":"9","author":"Knoop","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Transp. Infrastruct. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdel-Aty, M., and Wang, L. (2017, January 26\u201328). Reducing real-time crash risk for congested expressway weaving segments using ramp metering. Proceedings of the 2017 5th IEEE International Conference on Models and Technologies for Intelligent Transportation Systems (MT-ITS), Naples, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MTITS.2017.8005733"},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"22","article-title":"Near-miss determination through use of a scale of danger","volume":"384","author":"Hayward","year":"1972","journal-title":"Highw. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2007.908562","article-title":"Variable speed limits: Safety and operational impacts of a candidate control strategy for freeway applications","volume":"8","author":"Allaby","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2017.03.051","article-title":"Simulation-based variable speed limit systems modelling: An overview and a case study on istanbul freeways","volume":"22","author":"Sadat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Procedia"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2014.11.004","article-title":"Analysis of a cooperative variable speed limit system using microscopic traffic simulation","volume":"52","author":"Grumert","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_114","first-page":"167","article-title":"Exploring the impact of a coordinated variable speed limit control on congestion distribution in freeway","volume":"2","author":"Cao","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Traffic Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2015.07.014","article-title":"Variable speed limit: A microscopic analysis in a connected vehicle environment","volume":"58","author":"Khondaker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2014.05.016","article-title":"An optimal variable speed limits system to ameliorate traffic safety risk","volume":"46","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000795","article-title":"Modeling driver compliance to vsl and quantifying impacts of compliance levels and control strategy on mobility and safety","volume":"141","author":"Hadiuzzaman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Transp. Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/18\/5057\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:07:15Z","timestamp":1760177235000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/18\/5057"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,5]]},"references-count":117,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s20185057"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20185057","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,5]]}}}