{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:44:23Z","timestamp":1760240663265,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,1]],"date-time":"2019-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1564617600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bioimpedance spectroscopy consists of measuring the complex impedance of biological tissues over a large frequency domain. This method is particularly convenient for physiological studies or health monitoring systems. For a wide range of applications, devices need to be portable, wearable or even implantable. Next generation of bioimpedance sensing systems thus require to be implemented with power and resource savings in mind. Impedance measurement methods are divided into two main categories. Some are based on \u201csingle-tone\u201d signals while the others use \u201cmulti-tone\u201d signals. The firsts benefit from a very simple analysis that may consist of synchronous demodulation. However, due to necessary frequency sweep, the total measurement may take a long time. On the other hand, generating a multi-frequency signal allows the seconds to cover the whole frequency range simultaneously. This is at the cost of a more complex analysis algorithm. This makes both approaches hardly suitable for embedded applications. In this paper, we propose an intermediate approach that combines the speed of multi-tone systems with a low-resource analysis algorithm. This results in a minimal implementation using only adders and synchronous adc. For optimal performances, this small footprint digital processing can be synthesized and embedded on a mixed-mode integrated circuit together with the analog front-end. Moreover, the proposed implementation is easily scalable to fit an arbitrary frequency range. We also show that the resulting impact on noise sensitivity can be mitigated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19153381","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,1]],"date-time":"2019-08-01T11:39:37Z","timestamp":1564659577000},"page":"3381","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Very Low Resource Digital Implementation of Bioimpedance Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3219-8520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabien","family":"Soulier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"LIRMM, CNRS, University Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France"}]},{"given":"Achraf","family":"Lamlih","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LIRMM, CNRS, University Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4387-0976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincent","family":"Kerz\u00e9rho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LIRMM, CNRS, University Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1772-0592","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Serge","family":"Bernard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LIRMM, CNRS, University Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France"}]},{"given":"Tristan","family":"Rouyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MARBEC, Ifremer, University Montpellier, 34203 S\u00e8te, France"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grimnes, S., and Martinsen, O.G. (2014). Bioimpedance and Bioelectricity Basics, Elsevier, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-411470-8.00011-8"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"21","article-title":"Precision and accuracy of bioimpedance spectroscopy for determination of in vivo body composition in rats","volume":"7","author":"Smith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Body Compos. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3831","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2009.2020836","article-title":"In Vivo Blood Characterization From Bioimpedance Spectroscopy of Blood Pooling","volume":"58","author":"Dai","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrumen. Meas."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2097","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2004.836523","article-title":"Skin cancer identification using multifrequency electrical impedance-a potential screening tool","volume":"51","author":"Aberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1109\/10.238468","article-title":"Bioelectric impedance measurements using synchronous sampling","volume":"40","author":"Webster","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2005). AD5933\u20141 MSPS, 12-Bit Impedance Converter, Network Analyzer, Analog Devices."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1109\/TBCAS.2015.2456242","article-title":"A Batteryless Sensor ASIC for Implantable Bio-Impedance Applications","volume":"10","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circ. Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1109\/TBCAS.2016.2592511","article-title":"Novel 10-Bit Impedance-to-Digital Converter for Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Measurements","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Circ. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanchez, B., and Bragos, R. (2010). Multifrequency simultaneous bioimpedance measurements using multitone burst signals for dynamic tissue characterization. J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 224.","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/224\/1\/012004"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2792","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2315963","article-title":"An Integrated Analog Readout for Multi-Frequency Bioimpedance Measurements","volume":"14","author":"Kassanos","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ojarand, J., Rist, M., and Min, M. (2016, January 23\u201326). Comparison of excitation signals and methods for a wideband bioimpedance measurement. Proceedings of the Conference Record\u2014IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2016.7520555"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ronk, A., and Toomessoo, J. (2008, January 6\u20138). Synchronous primary signal processing for MIMO bio-impedance measurement on several frequencies. Proceedings of the 2008 11th International Biennial Baltic Electronics Conference, Tallinn, Estonia.","DOI":"10.1109\/BEC.2008.4657543"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.2307\/2310304","article-title":"An Algorithm for the Evaluation of Finite Trigonometric Series","volume":"65","author":"Goertzel","year":"1958","journal-title":"Am. Math. Mon."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Fresnaud, V., Bossuet, L., Dallet, D., Bernard, S., Janik, J.M., Agnus, B., Cauvet, P., and Gandy, P. (2006, January 21\u201324). A Low Cost Alternative Method for Harmonics Estimation in a BIST Context. Proceedings of the ETS: European Test Symposium, Southampton, UK."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soulier, F., Lamlih, A., Kerz\u00e9rho, V., and Bernard, S. (2018, January 4\u20136). A multitone analysis for bioimpedance spectroscopy using minimal digital ressource. Proceedings of the ICST: International Conference on Sensing Technology, Limerick, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSensT.2018.8603607"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-4832-3111-2.50008-0","article-title":"Electrical properties of tissue and cell suspensions","volume":"5","author":"Schwan","year":"1957","journal-title":"Adv. Biol. Med. Phys."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Min, M., Land, R., Martens, O., Parve, T., and Ronk, A. (2004, January 1\u20135). A sampling multichannel bioimpedance analyzer for tissue monitoring. Proceedings of the 26th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, San Francisco, CA, USA."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/15\/3381\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:12:15Z","timestamp":1760188335000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/15\/3381"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,1]]},"references-count":17,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s19153381"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19153381","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,1]]}}}