{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T03:55:09Z","timestamp":1760586909325,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,24]],"date-time":"2018-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1535068800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003565","name":"Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["17SCIP-B103706-03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17SCIP-B103706-03"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003565","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we propose an accurate and practical model for the estimation of surface-breaking discontinuity (i.e., crack) depth in concrete through quantitative characterization of surface-wave transmission across the discontinuity. The effects of three different mixture types (mortar, normal strength concrete, and high strength concrete) and four different simulated crack depths on surface-wave transmission were examined through experiments carried out on lab-scale concrete specimens. The crack depth estimation model is based on a surface-wave spectral energy approach that is capable of taking into account a wide range of wave frequencies. The accuracy of the proposed crack depth estimation model is validated by root mean square error analysis of data from repeated spectral energy transmission ratio measurements for each specimen.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092793","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,24]],"date-time":"2018-08-24T11:13:45Z","timestamp":1535109225000},"page":"2793","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Surface-Wave Based Model for Estimation of Discontinuity Depth in Concrete"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Eunjong","family":"Ahn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3838-4153","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyunjun","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7737-1892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sung-Han","family":"Sim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Korea"}]},{"given":"Sung Woo","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Safety Engineering, Pukyong National University, Pusan 48513, Korea"}]},{"given":"John S.","family":"Popovics","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC), Urbana, IL 61801, USA"}]},{"given":"Myoungsu","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan 44919, Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2018, August 22). 2017 Report Card for America\u2019s Infrastructures. Available online: https:\/\/www.infrastructurereportcard.org\/."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Mehta, P.K., Monteiro, P.J.M., and Ebrary, I. (2006). Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials, McGraw Hill. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"ACI Committee (2013). Report on Nondestructive Test Methods for Evaluation of Concrete in Structures, American Concrete Institute."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1109\/58.265832","article-title":"A survey of developments in ultrasonic NDE of concrete","volume":"41","author":"Popovics","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RILEM Technical Committee (2010). Recommendation of RILEM TC 212-ACD: Acoustic emission and related NDE techniques for crack detection and damage evaluation in concrete. Mater. Struct., 43, 1183\u20131186.","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-010-9639-z"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000441","article-title":"Comparison of NDT methods for assessment of a concrete bridge deck","volume":"139","author":"Oh","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2014.006962","article-title":"NDE application of ultrasonic tomography to a full-scale concrete structure","volume":"62","author":"Choi","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, F.W., Chai, H.K., and Lim, K.S. (2016). Assessment of reinforced concrete surface breaking crack using Rayleigh wave measurement. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16030337"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"ASTM Standard C597 (2009). Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity through Concrete, ASTM International."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9399(1998)124:12(1346)","article-title":"One-sided stress wave velocity measurement in concrete","volume":"124","author":"Popovics","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.010","article-title":"Integrated visualization for reinforced concrete using ultrasonic tomography and image-based 3-D reconstruction","volume":"123","author":"Choi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2017.07.001","article-title":"Characterization of steel-concrete interface bonding conditions using attenuation characteristics of guided waves","volume":"83","author":"Song","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"127","article-title":"Application of surface wave transmission measurements for crack depth determination in concrete","volume":"97","author":"Popovics","year":"2000","journal-title":"ACI Mater. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1537709","article-title":"Measurement of surface wave transmission coefficient across surface-breaking cracks and notches in concrete","volume":"113","author":"Song","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1121\/1.3298431","article-title":"Using air-coupled sensors to determine the depth of a surface-breaking crack in concrete","volume":"127","author":"Kee","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"510","article-title":"Crack depth estimation in concrete using energy transmission of surface waves","volume":"105","author":"Shin","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACI Mater. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000065","article-title":"Effect of concrete compositions in energy transmission of surface waves for nondestructive crack depth evaluation","volume":"22","author":"Shin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2010.03.002","article-title":"Characterization of the crack depth in concrete using self-compensating frequency response function","volume":"43","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2011.05.034","article-title":"Surface wave transmission measurements across distributed surface-breaking cracks using air-coupled sensors","volume":"330","author":"Kee","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"35","article-title":"Surface wave transmission across a partially closed surface-breaking crack in concrete","volume":"111","author":"Kee","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACI Mater. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2011.1820","article-title":"Effects of sensor locations on air-coupled surface wave transmission measurements across a surface-breaking crack","volume":"58","author":"Kee","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-014-0272-6","article-title":"A fully non-contact, air-coupled ultrasonic measurement of surface breaking cracks in concrete","volume":"34","author":"In","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nondestr. Eval."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-007-9083-3","article-title":"Nondestructive evaluation of crack depth in concrete using PCA-compressed wave transmission function and neural networks","volume":"48","author":"Shin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1007\/s40069-015-0110-y","article-title":"Automated surface wave measurements for evaluating the depth of surface-breaking cracks in concrete","volume":"9","author":"Kee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Concr. Struct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-624X(01)00077-4","article-title":"Diffusion of ultrasound in concrete","volume":"39","author":"Anugonda","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1642625","article-title":"Ultrasound diffusion for crack depth determination in concrete","volume":"115","author":"Ramamoorthy","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-016-0382-4","article-title":"Estimation of crack depth in concrete using diffuse ultrasound: Validation in cracked concrete beams","volume":"36","author":"In","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nondestr. Eval."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.06.138","article-title":"Monitoring of autogenous crack healing in cementitious materials by the nonlinear modulation of ultrasonic coda waves, 3D microscopy and X-ray microtomography","volume":"123","author":"Hilloulin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2016.01.006","article-title":"Evaluation of self-healing of internal cracks in biomimetic mortar using coda wave interferometry","volume":"83","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-017-0410-z","article-title":"Measuring alkali-silica reaction (ASR) microscale damage in large-scale concrete slabs using nonlinear Rayleigh surface waves","volume":"36","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nondestr. Eval."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2012.08.006","article-title":"Characterization of thermally damaged concrete using a nonlinear ultrasonic method","volume":"42","author":"Yim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cem. Conc. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahn, E., Kim, H., Sim, S.H., Shin, S.W., and Shin, M. (2017). Principles and applications of ultrasonic-based nondestructive methods for self-healing in cementitious materials. Materials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma10030278"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2017.04.018","article-title":"Comparative analysis of image binarization methods for crack identification in concrete structures","volume":"99","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H., Lee, J., Ahn, E., Cho, S., Shin, M., and Sim, S.H. (2017). Concrete crack identification using a UAV incorporating hybrid image processing. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17092052"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Graff, K.F. (1991). Wave Motion in Elastic Solids, Dover Publications."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1121\/1.390473","article-title":"Reflection and transmission of obliquely incident Rayleigh waves by a surface-breaking crack","volume":"75","author":"Angel","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/9\/2793\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:20:57Z","timestamp":1760196057000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/9\/2793"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,24]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s18092793"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18092793","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,24]]}}}