{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]],"date-time":"2025-11-04T23:17:41Z","timestamp":1762298261835},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"Walter de Gruyter GmbH","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,1]],"date-time":"2015-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1427846400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.karger.com\/Services\/SiteLicenses"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,1]],"date-time":"2015-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1427846400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.karger.com\/Services\/SiteLicenses"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The English past tense allomorph following a coronal stop (e.g., \/b\u0251nd\u0259d\/) includes a vocoid that has traditionally been transcribed as a schwa or as a barred i. Previous evidence has suggested that this entity does not involve a specific articulatory gesture of any kind. Rather, its presence may simply result from temporal coordination of the two temporally adjacent coronal gestures, while the interval between those two gestures remains voiced and is acoustically reminiscent of a schwa. The acoustic and articulatory characteristics of this vocoid are reexamined in this work using real-time MRI with synchronized audio which affords complete midsagittal views of the vocal tract. A novel statistical analysis is developed to address the issue of articulatory targetlessness based on previous models that predict articulatory action from segmental context. Results reinforce the idea that this vocoid is different, both acoustically and articulatorily, than lexical schwa, but its targetless nature is not supported. Data suggest that an articulatory target does exist, especially in the pharynx where it is revealed by the new data acquisition methodology. Moreover, substantial articulatory differences are observed between subjects, which highlights both the difficulty in characterizing this entity previously, and the need for further study with additional subjects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1159\/000371820","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,16]],"date-time":"2015-07-16T21:02:50Z","timestamp":1437080570000},"page":"229-248","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Gestural Control in the English Past-Tense Suffix: An Articulatory Study Using Real-Time MRI"],"prefix":"10.1515","volume":"71","author":[{"given":"Adam","family":"Lammert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Signal Analysis and Interpretation Laboratory and Department of Linguistics , University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. , USA"}]},{"given":"Louis","family":"Goldstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Signal Analysis and Interpretation Laboratory and Department of Linguistics , University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. , USA"}]},{"given":"Vikram","family":"Ramanarayanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Signal Analysis and Interpretation Laboratory and Department of Linguistics , University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. , USA"}]},{"given":"Shrikanth","family":"Narayanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Signal Analysis and Interpretation Laboratory and Department of Linguistics , University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. , USA"}]}],"member":"374","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_001_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab1Aa","unstructured":"Anderson S (19 82): The analysis of French schwa. Language 58:535-573.10.2307\/413848"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_002_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab2Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakovic E (2005): Antigemination, assimilation and the determination of identity. Phonology 22:279-315.10.1017\/S0952675705000631","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952675705000631"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_003_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab3Aa","unstructured":"Bennett CM, Baird AA, Miller MB, Wolford GL (2010): Neural correlates of interspecies perspective taking in the post-mortem Atlantic salmon: an argument for proper multiple comparisons correction. J Serendipitous Unexpected Results 1:1-5.10.1016\/S1053-8119(09)71202-9"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_004_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab4Aa","unstructured":"Boersma P (2001): Praat, a system for doing phonetics by computer. Glot Int 5:341-345."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_005_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab5Aa","unstructured":"Bresch E, Katsamanis A, Narayanan S (2010): Coupled HMM; in Proc Interspeech."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_006_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab6Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bresch E, Narayanan S (2009): Region segmentation in the frequency domain applied to upper airway real-time magnetic resonance images. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 28:323.10.1109\/TMI.2008.92892019244005","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2008.928920"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_007_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab7Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bresch E, Nielsen J, Nayak K, Narayanan S (2006): Synchronized and noise-robust audio recordings during realtime MRI scans. J Acoust Soc Am 120:1791-1794.10.1121\/1.233542317069275","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2335423"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_008_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab8Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Browman C, Goldstein L (1992): Targetless schwa: an articulatory analysis; in Docherty A, Ladd A (eds): Papers in Laboratory Phonology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, vol II: Gesture, Segment, Prosody, pp 26-56.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511519918.003"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_009_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ab9Aa","unstructured":"Browman C, Goldstein L (2000): Competing constraints on intergestural coordination and self-organization of phonological structures. Bull Commun Parl\u00e9 5:25-34."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_010_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac10Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davidson L (2006): Phonotactics and articulatory coordination interact in phonology: evidence from nonnative production. Cogn Sci 30:837-862.10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_7321702839","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0000_73"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_011_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac11Aa","unstructured":"Devijver PA, Kittler J (1982): Pattern Recognition: A Statistical Approach. London, Prentice Hall.10.1080\/01431168408948821"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_012_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac12Aa","unstructured":"Fant G (1950a): Transmission properties of the vocal tract. Part I. MIT Q Prog Rep, pp 20-23."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_013_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac13Aa","unstructured":"Fant G (1950b): Transmission properties of the vocal tract. Part II. MIT Q Prog Rep, pp 14-19."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_014_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac14Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feise RJ (2002): Do multiple outcome measures require p-value adjustment? BMC Med Res Methodol 2:8.Flemming E (2007): The phonetics of schwa vowels; in Minkova D (ed): Phonological Weakness in English. Palgrave.10.1186\/1471-2288-2-812069695","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2288-2-8"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_015_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac15Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flemming E, Johnson S (2007): Rosa's roses: reduced vowels in American English. J Int Phonet Assoc 37:83-96.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0025100306002817"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_016_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac16Aa","unstructured":"Forsyth D, Ponce J (2002): Computer Vision: A Modern Approach. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall.10.1017\/S0025100306002817"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_017_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac17Aa","unstructured":"Fromkin V (ed) (2000): Linguistics: An Introduction to Linguistic Theory. Oxford, Blackwell."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_018_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac18Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gafos A (2002): A grammar of gestural coordination. Nat Lang Linguist Theory 20:269.","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014942312445"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_019_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac19Aa","unstructured":"Geisser S (1993): Predictive Inference. New York, Chapman &amp;amp;amp;amp; Hall.10.1023\/A:1014942312445"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_020_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac20Aa","unstructured":"Goldstein L (2011): Back to the past tense in English; in Representing Language: Essays in Honor of Judith Aissen. Santa Cruz, Linguistics Research Center, University of California Santa Cruz."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_021_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac21Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goldstein L, Byrd D, Saltzman E (2006): The role of vocal tract gestural action units in understanding the evolution of phonology; in Arbib M (ed): Action to Language via the Mirror Neuron System. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511541599.008"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_022_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac22Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiparsky P (1985): Some consequences of lexical phonology. Phonol Yearb 2:85-138.10.1017\/CBO9780511541599.008","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952675700000397"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_023_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac23Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kitamura T, Takemoto H, Honda K, Shimada Y, Fujimoto I, Syakudo Y, Masaki S, Kuroda K, Oku-uchi N, Senda M (2005): Difference in vocal tract shape between upright and supine postures: observations by an open-type MRI scanner. Acoust Sci Technol 26.10.1017\/S0952675700000397","DOI":"10.1250\/ast.26.465"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_024_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac24Aa","unstructured":"Lammert A, Proctor M, Narayanan S (2010): Data-driven analysis of realtime vocal tract mri using correlated image regions; in Proc Interspeech.10.1250\/ast.26.465"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_025_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac25Aa","unstructured":"Magen H (1989): An Acoustic Study of Vowel-to-Vowel Coarticulation in English; PhD thesis Yale University."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_026_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac26Aa","unstructured":"Nam H (2007): Articulatory modeling of consonant release gesture; in 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_027_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac27Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Narayanan S, Nayak K, Lee S, Sethy A, Byrd D (2004): An approach to real-time magnetic resonance imaging for speech production. J Acoust Soc Am 115:1771-1776.","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1652588"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_028_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac28Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perneger TV (1998): What's wrong with Bonferroni adjustments. BMJ 316:1236-1238.10.1121\/1.165258815101655","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.316.7139.1236"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_029_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac29Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinker S, Prince A (1988): On language and connectionism: analysis of a parallel distributed processing model of language acquisition; in Pinker S, Mehler J (eds): Connections and Symbols. Cambridge, MIT Press, pp 73-193.10.1136\/bmj.316.7139.12369553006","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(88)90032-7"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_030_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac30Aa","unstructured":"Pouradmadi M (2007): Construction of skew-normal random variables: are they linear combinations of normal and half-normal? J Stat Theory Application 3:314-328.10.1016\/0010-0277(88)90032-72450717"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_031_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac31Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramanarayanan V, Goldstein L, Byrd D, Narayanan S (2013): An investigation of articulatory setting using realtime magnetic resonance imaging. J Acoust Soc Am 134:510-519.","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4807639"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_032_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac32Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rothman KJ (1990): No adjustments are needed for multiple comparisons. Epidemiology 1:43-46.10.1121\/1.480763923862826","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-199001000-00010"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_033_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac33Aa","unstructured":"Smorodinsky I (2002): Schwas with and without Active Gestural Control; PhD thesis Yale University.10.1097\/00001648-199001000-000102081237"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_034_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac34Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stone M, Stock G, Bunin K, Kumar K, Epstein M, Kambhamettu C, Li M, Parthasarathy V, Prince J (2007): Comparison of speech production in upright and supine position. J Acoust Soc Am 122:532-541.10.1121\/1.4744666","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2715659"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_035_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac35Aa","unstructured":"Tiede M, Masaki S, Vatikiotis-Bateson E (2000): Contrasts in speech articulation observed in sitting and supine conditions; in Proc International Seminar on Speech Production, Bavaria, pp 25-28.10.1121\/1.271565917614510"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_036_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac36Aa","unstructured":"Trager A, Smith A (1951): An Outline of English Structure. Studies in Linguistics Occasional Papers (No. 3). Norman, Battenberg Press."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_037_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac37Aa","unstructured":"Wrench A, Cleland J, Scobbie J (2011): An ultrasound protocol for comparing tongue contours: upright vs. supine; in Proceedings of the International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Hong Kong, pp 2161-2164."},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_038_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac38Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zsiga E (2003): Articulatory timing in a second language. Stud Second Lang Acquisition 25:399-432.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263103000160"},{"key":"2021062305191551438_j_000371820_ref_039_w2aab3b7c12b1b6b1ab1ac39Aa","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zsiga E (2003): Articulatory timing in a second language. Stud Second Lang Acquisition 25:399-432.10.1017\/S0272263103000160","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263103000160"}],"container-title":["Phonetica"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.karger.com\/Article\/Pdf\/371820","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.degruyter.com\/document\/doi\/10.1159\/000371820\/xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.degruyter.com\/document\/doi\/10.1159\/000371820\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,12]],"date-time":"2023-08-12T08:09:27Z","timestamp":1691827767000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.degruyter.com\/document\/doi\/10.1159\/000371820\/html"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,1]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1159\/000371820"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000371820","relation":{},"ISSN":["1423-0321","0031-8388"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1423-0321","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0031-8388","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,1]]}}}